Aims The region around the South China Sea is a relatively independent semi closed geographical unit, which can be divided into eight areas, including the coast of South China, Hainan Island, Taiwan Island, Indo-China Peninsula, Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan Island, Palawan Island, and Luzon Island. The region around the South China Sea is one of the regions with the most concentrated distribution of mangrove plants in the world. This study aims to explore the geographical distribution pattern and the underlying mechanisms of mangrove species in the eight regions around the South China Sea.

Methods Species richness and distribution of mangrove in the region around the South China Sea and other regions worldwide were obtained through extensive literature survey and mapped with ArcGIS. Species distribution map with 1° × 1° grid of four typical mangrove taxa, i.e. Rhizophoraceae, Malvaceae, Sonneratia, Avicennia, were drawn by DIVA-GIS 7.5.0. The migration history and route and its main influencing factors were explored through literature survey in ISI Web of Science.

Important findings (1) There are 39 species of true mangroves and 14 species of semi-mangroves distributed in this region, mostly distributed in Malay Peninsula, Kalimantan Island, Hainan Island, Indo-China Peninsula, Luzon Island. (2) All mangrove species are widespread in the region, which may be caused by the fact that South China Sea has completely different ocean current and monsoon directions in summer and winter, promoting the long-distance dispersals of mangrove plants. (3) There is a certain internal circulation in the northern and southern parts of the South China Sea, and resulting in the appearance of relatively isolated genetic lineages on both sides of the line connecting Cam Ranh Bay and the northern tip of Palawan Island, especially for the true mangroves such as Excoecaria agallocha, Lumnitzera racemose and Aegiceras corniculatum. (4) The sea level decreased by about 120 m during the Pleistocene, which profoundly affected the distribution pattern and migration route of mangroves in the region. In the future, phylogeographical studies using updated molecular technology, especially genomic data, is suggested to explore the dispersal history of mangrove plants and their future evolutionary trend under global climate change.

Aims With increasing anthropogenic activities in coastal areas, human disturbances have been identified as major causes of the decline of coastal mangroves and undemine the sustainable development. Monitoring the spatial-temporal dynamics of typical human activities in mangrove ecosystems and adjacent areas is critical in conservation and restoration of local mangrove ecosystems.

Methods We proposed an object-oriented machine learning method based on seasonal water fluctuations, using Landsat satellite imagery on Google Earth Engine platform. Inundation frequency was incorporated as a classification feature to obtain the spatial pattern of aquaculture ponds, which is concerned as the key driver of degradation and losses of mangroves. We revealed the dynamics of aquaculture ponds at a 30 m-resolution between 1990 and 2020 in China’s coastal regions with mangrove community detected, including Guangdong, Fujian, Zhejiang, Taiwan, Guangxi, and Hainan.

Important findings The total area of coastal aquaculture ponds in 1990 was about 2 963 km², which increased to 5 200 km² in 2000 and 5 377 km² in 2010, and then decreased to 4 805 km² in 2020. The maximum appeared between 2010 and 2020, but there was a significant regional variation in the changing pattern and peaking time of coastal aquaculture ponds. Coastal aquaculture ponds were mainly concentrated in the region of 21°-24° N (Guangdong and Guangxi). The spatial pattern of mangroves was shown as a staggered arrangement to that of aquaculture ponds. Our results also indicate a symbiotic relationship between aquaculture ponds and mangroves at latitude 21°-22° N, where a large number of mangroves grow along the edges of aquaculture ponds. This special distribution of mangroves and aquaculture ponds leads to a high level of interconnections between these two ecosystems, which can be recognized as the typical areas in exploring the impacts of human activities on mangrove ecosystems. The conversion of mangroves to aquaculture ponds was the primary cause of mangrove loss, which led to the extreme fragmentation and aggregation of mangrove patches in different areas. Our research on the spatial-temporal pattern of coastal aquaculture ponds provides an accurate dataset to assess the impacts of increasing human activities on mangrove ecosystems, and may contribute to the identification of priority restoration area.

Aims Plant leaves have the ability to adjust phenotypic characteristics according to different environmental conditions. The adaptability of leaf traits to the environment directly affects the survival, distribution and migration of plants under climate change. With global warming, mangrove forests have been expanding to higher latitudes. However, there is still a lack of understanding about the genetic adaptation of leaf traits of different mangrove species to temperature variation of native habitats.
Methods The leaf anatomical structure and physiological function parameters of the seedlings from 6 provenances of Bruguiera gymnorhiza and 5 provenances of Kandelia obovata were measured, which were grown in a common garden. The relationships between the leaf anatomical traits and physiological function of mangrove seedlings were analyzed, and the genetic adaptation of two mangrove species to the temperature of provenance was analyzed.
Important findings The leaf thickness, thickness of palisade tissue, cuticle and epidermis of B. gymnorhiza seedlings were significantly negatively correlated with the mean annual temperature of their native habitats. Compared with the seedlings of B. gymnorhiza, the K. obovata seedlings had thicker leaf epidermis and cuticle, and the anatomical traits of K. obovata were not correlated with the annual average temperature of the provenances. Pooling the data of the seedlings of different provenances of the two species together, the palisade tissue and to a lesser extend spongy tissue were positively correlated with photosynthetic rate, suggesting an important role of palisade tissue for photosynthesis in mangroves. There was also a significant positive correlation between vein density and stomatal density, maximum stomatal conductance, revealing genetic adaptation for the balance between leaf transpirational demand and water supply. In conclusion, B. gymnorhiza showed the significant genetic adaptation to the temperature of the provenance, while K. obovata did not. The leaf anatomical structure of K. obovata adapts to the temperature of provenance through the persistent inheritance of stress resistance of leaf structure. The differences of leaf structure lead to the corresponding changes of physiological functions such as photosynthesis and maximum stomatal conductance of mangroves, which is conducive to the survival and reproduction of mangroves under the climate change.

Aims The composition of soil organic carbon has been changed significantly in mangrove ecosystems due to the invasion of Spartina alterniflora in recent years. However, few studies were reported on functional groups of soil organic carbon in the two communities. The object of this study was to understand the differences in soil carbon pool and organic carbon functional group characteristics in mangrove community and S. alterniflora community of Zhangjiang Mangrove Nature Reserve in Fujian Province.

Methods We used the method of “space for time” to study the changes of soil carbon composition following the invasion of S. alterniflora. Three transects were selected from landward to seaward in the wetland of Zhangjiang Mangrove Nature Reserve in Fujian Province, with three sampling sites in each transect: mangrove community (MC), transitional community (TC), and S. alterniflora community (SC). We sampled three plots in each site for replicates. Soil samples from five soil layers at 0-100 cm were collected to analyze the characteristics of total organic carbon (TOC), particulate organic carbon (POC) and dissolve organic carbon (DOC). Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy was used to analyze the functional group characteristics for surface (0-15 cm) and deep layers (75-100 cm).

Important findings We found that: (1) soil organic carbon decreased from MC to SC, with TOC and POC following the pattern of MC > TC > SC. However, the DOC did not show a clear trend. (2) The functional groups of soil organic carbon in all vegetation types were mainly alkyl carbon and alkoxy carbon, followed by aromatic carbon and carbonyl carbon. In the surface soil 0-15 cm, the alkyl carbon and alkoxy carbon showed an increasing trend from MC to SC. The aromatic carbon and phenolic carbon decreased from MC to SC. In the deep layer of 75-100 cm soil, however, soil organic carbon composition showed no significant difference among the three communities. (3) In the surface 0-15 cm soil, alkyl carbon/alkoxy carbon showed the following pattern: SC > MC > TC; SC has the least aromaticity; hydrophobic carbon/hydrophilic carbon showed no significant difference; aliphatic carbon/aromatic carbon showed larger values in SC than in MC and TC. At the depth of 75-100 cm, there were no significant differences for all the ratios. In summary, the carbon storage of MC was higher than that of SC. The decomposition rate of soil organic carbon of SC in surface soil layer was higher than that of MC, indicating more complex organic carbon in MC. The deep layer carbon pool was more stable and less affected by vegetation type. The results indicated that S. alterniflora would reduce soil carbon storage after invading mangroves, as well as changing the composition of soil organic carbon functional groups. The molecular structure of soil organic carbon in SC was simpler than MC, and the degree of decomposition was greater in SC than MC.

Aims The cordgrass Spartina alterniflora is one of the highly successful invasive plants in coastlines worldwide. Although the S. alterniflora invasion is threatening mangroves and the increasing heavy metal pollution of oceans and coasts are of growing concerns, especially in China, the effects of S. alterniflora invasion on the enrichment of sedimental heavy metals in mangrove wetlands are not known. The objectives of this study are to determine the effects of S. alterniflora invasion on enrichment of sedimental heavy metals in the mangrove wetland and the underlying mechanisms.
Methods We investigated differences in the contents of sedimental heavy metals, including As, Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn, and Mn, for two pairs of comparisons (unvegetated shoal vs S. alterniflora monoculture and Avicennia marina monoculture vs A. marina + S. alterniflora mixture), and their relationships with environmental factors in Zhanjiang Mangrove National Natural Reserve, Guangdong, China.
Important findings Spartina alterniflora invasions in mangrove wetlands increased the contents of sedimental heavy metals, with the effects being significant on Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, and Mn. The intermediate level of pollution was only detected in the sedimental Cd. The presence of S. alterniflora resulted in enrichment in the sedimental heavy metals in the mangrove wetland in Zhanjiang, but not to the degree of concerns for contaminations. The contents of sedimental organic matter, total C, total N, total S and total K were strongly related to the contents of sedimental heavy metals in the invaded mangrove wetland. Ultimately, the dense above-and below-ground architectures of the invasive S. alterniflora likely play a predominant role in causing enrichment of sedimental heavy metals.

Vivipary in plants refers to a phenomenon that sexually reproduced offsprings germinate while still attached to the maternal bodies. This is mostly manifested in mangrove plants, which occur in tropical and subtropical intertidal zones and encounter harsh environmental conditions such as high salinity, high temperatures, waterlogging, hypoxia and tidal waves. Vivipary has long been recognized as one of the most important adaptive features under such a complex environment. Here we discuss four aspects of vivipary: morphological anatomy, physiology and biochemistry, molecular biology and ecological adaptation. We also discuss shortcomings in current studies and prospect of future directions. Differing from regular seed development, viviparous seeds in mangroves are evolved with many special structures, indicating a genetically based process. Hormones play an important role in regulating the process, whilst the dynamics of salt ion concentration during embryo and propagule development seems to be an adaptive feature. The ecological significance of vivipary is fully exhibited in the propagules that can effectively establish themselves on muddy tidal zones. Such a success heavily relies on sound functional features developed on the mother plants. However, the molecular mechanism and the regulation of viviparous seed development in mangroves remain elusive. Systematic studies of vivipary in mangroves not only help to understand the nature and evolutionary process of this distinct adaptive phenomenon, but also provide the foundation for mangrove forest restoration and protection in many parts of the world.

Based on a year round survey conducted in the mangrove swamp of Luoyangjiang Estuary in Fujian from August 2013 to April 2014, macrobenthic diversity, seasonal changes, and the impact of mangrove rehabilitation on the macrobenthic community were analyzed. We recorded a total of 78 species from 7 phyla in the study area and the community was dominated by annelids and arthropods. The gastropod, Assiminea brevicula (Assimineidae), was the most dominant species and was more abundant in mangrove forests than in mudflats. ANOSIM analysis showed that faunal communities were significantly different between mangrove forests and mudflats, with the former characterized by much lower macrobenthic density and biomass. Moreover, some of dominant species, such as Parasesarma plicata and Phascolosoma arcuatum, were only found in mangrove forests. Higher value of macrobenthic density was found in winter and spring, while mean biomass was higher in spring and summer. Significant differences in macrobenthic communites were observed among seasons except between winter and spring. The present study demostrated that, species composition of the mangrove macrobenthos indicated characteristics of a young mangrove plantation and seasonal changes in macrobenthic communities might be due to different breeding seasons of the dominant species. Mangrove vegetation had a noticeable impact on macrobenthic communities, as evidenced by significant difference in macrobenthic communites between the two habitats. Density of macrobenthos in mangrove forests was much lower than that found in 2009, but the sesarminid crab Parasesarma plicata became much abundant. Since mangrove forests and mudflats support different species composition of macrobenthos, planning is needed in mangrove rehabilitation for the protection of habitat diversity and heterogeneity.

To examine our current understanding on biological invasions in mangrove forests, relevant information from literature was reviewed and several key points were summarized based on the database of ISI Web of Science and the information analysis software HistCite. First, most of the studies have focused on the invasion of plant species in mangrove forests, and little attention are paid to other organisms. Secondly, there is an obvious bias on the locations of study sites, with most being situated in the southern and southeastern coasts of China (especially in the Pearl River Estuary and west of the Leizhou Peninsula) and the southeastern coast and Hawaiian Islands of the United States. Thirdly, that whether Sonneratia apetala can result in invasion is still a hot but controversial topic. Introduction of this species should be cautious. Forth, Spartina alterniflora and Mikania micrantha are the most notorious invaders around the world; both possess fast growth rate, high reproductive and competitive capacity, and strong allelopathic effects. They have invaded mangrove forests and caused severe ecological consequences, and apparently deteriorated the microhabitat and changed the benthic organisms’ community. Fifth, Rhizophora mangle has invaded Hawaiian Islands as an exotic mangrove species, modified the sedimentary environment, and enriched the benthic organisms, but the impacts are yet to be considered at the global scale. In general, studies on biological invasions in mangrove forests are still at the infant stage and we know little about the underlying mechanisms of the invasions. Specific strategies are lacking for controlling the invasion. The state of invasion and corresponding impacts should be continually focused in future studies. Exploration of the mechanisms and controlling strategies of invasion in mangroves should be launched as soon as possible. The assessment of the effects of biological invasion on ecological services of mangroves should also be emphasized. Finally, a sound management system for the control of biological invasions in mangrove forests is urgently needed.

In order to assess the ecological impacts of Spartina alterniflora on mangrove ecosystems, we investigated macro-invertebrate communities in S. alterniflora wetlands and a mangrove wetland between October 2012 and September 2013, in the Xicungang estuary, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. The species composition, biomass and diversity of macro-invertebrates were compared at different times between the mangrove habitat and S. alterniflora community. Sixteen species from Arthropoda, Mollusca, Annelida, Cnidadia and Sipuncula were collected from the two habitats. Twelve species were found in mangrove wetlands whereas 10 species were found in S. alterniflora wetlands. Perhaps due to the invasion of S. alterniflora, Glauconome chinensis became the predominant species, leading to a greater macro-invertebrate biomass in S. alterniflora wetlands than in mangrove wetland. On the other hand, the Margalef, Shannon-Wiener index, Simpson and Pieous diversity indices of macro-invertebrates were lower in S. alterniflora habitat than in mangrove habitat. Two-way ANOVA was used to analyze the effect of sampling periods and habitats on the number of species, biomass and diversity indices of macro-invertebrates. Our results showed that Shannon- Wiener index and Simpson diversity indices differed between the two habitats, the Margalef and Pieous diversity indices differed among sampling periods, number of species and biomass were affected by both habitats and sampling periods. Based on multiple linear regression analyses, macro-invertebrate biomass was related to the density of S. alterniflora, and Shannon-Wiener, Simpson diversity and species richness of macro-invertebrates were all related with the height of S. alterniflora. According to our NMDS (non-metric multidimensional scaling) analysis, macro-invertebrate communities in S. alterniflora habitat mainly differed from those of mangrove habitats due to sampling periods. In conclusion, the invasion of S. alterniflora in mangrove wetlands in Xicungang estuary increased the biomass of macro-invertebrates, while decreased the diversity of them, and also changed the community structure of macro-invertebrate assemblages.

Aims Sonneratia apetala, a native mangrove species in India, Bengal and Sri-Lanka, was introduced in 1985 to Dongzhaigang Mangrove Nature Reserve in Hainan Island, China from Sundarban, southwest of Bangladesh. Laguncularia racemosa, another mangrove species from Mexico was introduced to the same reserve in 1999. Our objective was to investigate the salinity tolerance mechanism of S. apetala and L. racemosa in order to elucidate adaptive strategies of the halophytes in stressful saline habitat.
Methods We investigated the effects of increasing soil NaCl (100-400 mmol·L^-1) on gas exchange, O₂^-_· production rate, activity of antioxidant enzymes, and the relevance to salt tolerance over four weeks in 1-year-old seedlings of S. apetala and L. racemosa.
Important findings Seedlings of the two mangrove species acclimated to different salinity levels through changing physiological and morphological traits. However, there were significant differences between S. apetala and L. racemosa in photosynthesis and anti-oxidant defense under salt stress. Increasing NaCl stress significantly elevated net photosynthetic rate (P_n), and stomatal conductance (G_s), intercellular CO₂ concentration (C_i) and transpiration rate (T_r) decreased. As a result, water use efficiency (WUE) increased in leaves of S. apetala seedlings. But L. racemosa showed a rapid increase of P_n in the initiation of salt stress, and P_n remained lower than control levels at the end of the experiment. As a result, C_i and G_s increase with the decrease of P_n, T_r and WUE. The reduction occurred after exposure of L. racemosa seedlings to severe salinity, 400 mmol·L^-1 NaCl (28 d). These results indicated that the inhibitory effects of severe salinity were more pronounced in L. racemosa under the same salinity. Moreover, the magnitude of variation of S. apetala maximum photochemical efficiency of PSII (F_v/F_m) was significantly less than that of L. racemosa leaves. We speculated that photosynthetic capacity of S. apetala was higher than L. racemosa. O₂^-_· production rate markedly increased after the two seedlings were subjected to 100 mmol·L^-1 NaCl and 200 mmol·L^-1 NaCl for 7 days and 14 days, respectively. However, O₂^-_· production rate in S. apetala leaves markedly increased upon increasing salinity and reached the highest level after seedlings were subjected to 400 mmol·L^-1 NaCl for 28 days, which was 5.3 fold of that in controls. In contrast to S. apetala, O₂ ^-_· production rate in L. racemosa leaves remained lower than control levels at the end of the experiment. Activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), catalase (CAT), peroxidase (POD) and glutathione reductase (GR) was elevated corresponding to the increased O₂^-_· production in the salt-stressed two mangrove plants; however, the magnitude of increase of L. racemosa antioxidant enzyme activities was significantly greater than that of S. apetala, during the period of salt stress. We suggest that L. racemosa plants were able to sense salt stress and up-regulated the antioxidant enzymes to reduce salt-induced lipid peroxidation and membrane permeability, which contributed to maintenance of membrane integrity and salt tolerance in L. racemosa. Sonneratia apetala seedlings might adapt resistance to severe salinity through improving photosynthesis by higher WUE and maximum photochemical efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm).

The family Ellobiidae is a special group of primitive pulmonate molluscs that live in tropical and subtropical areas, mainly in high tidal and supratidal zones of coastal areas. Ellobiids occur widely and abundantly in mangrove areas. Of the 240 species known globally, over half of them have been recorded in mangrove habitats. In this paper, we summarize species of halophilic ellobiids in China and the relationship between ellobiids and mangroves. We discuss the achievements of mangrove ellobiids studies in the fields of species composition, distribution, ecological function and behavior. We also report a complete list of the ellobiid species from mangroves and their distribution within mainland China, including 21 newly recorded species. It is implied that this group is very sensitive to environmental changes and human disturbances, therefore it can be used as a bio-indicator for sea dike construction, which is an important proposed research topic in future.

Aims Unusually low temperatures associated with heavy rain, snow and frost occurred in 19 provinces in southern China in January-February 2008. Our objectives were to evaluate the impact of the cold weather event on mangroves and to compare differences in cold tolerance between exotic and native mangrove species.

Methods In March 2008, we conducted an intensive survey of cold damage in ten mangrove nature reserves along the coastal areas of mainland China. Parameters such as scorch percentage, defoliation percentage and leaf F_v/F_m values (an indicator of leaf physiological health) were determined on selected seedlings and trees of the mangrove species at each site.

Important findings With low latitudes in Hainan, Guangxi and Zhanjiang of Guangdong, low air temperature coupled with the ebb tide at night, which caused serious damage to several mangrove species. However, native mangrove species in Fujian, such as Kandelia obovata, Aegiceras corniculatum, Avicennia marina and transplanted Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, which were adapted to low temperature events in winters, had higher cold resistance. Among all mangrove species surveyed, K. obovata, Aegiceras corniculatum and Avicennia marina were the most cold-resistant, followed by B. gymnorrhiza, B. sexangula and Rhizophora stylosa, which belong to the family Rhizophoraceae. Sonneratia caseolaris was the least cold-resistent mangrove species, having suffered serious damage or even complete loss in some locations. S. apetala introduced from Bangladesh showed much less damage than its counterpart S. caseolaris, indicating higher resistance to low temperature. Furthermore, mangrove seedlings were more sensitive than mature trees. The extreme cold event killed many mangrove seedlings in the nurseries and caused immature flowers and fruits to drop from trees, which would have an adverse effect on mangrove natural reproduction and reforestation projects. Thus, it is essential to consider cold resistance in future mangrove afforestration and restoration projects.

Research on the biodiversity of mangrove ecosystems should include not only the plants but other components, such as the macrobenthos. In order to understand the response of the macrobenthos to a mangrove habitat with high organics and nutrients, we compared the mangrove and non-mangrove macrobenthic communities, and analyzed their spatial-temporal distributions in these two habitats from April 2006 to January 2007 in Tong’an Bay, Fujian. Six sampling stations were set in Tong’an Bay, four of them (FL1, FL2, XA-A and XA-B) were in the mangrove habitat, the other two (FL3 and XA-C) were in the non-mangrove habitat. An analysis of sediment properties showed that total organic matter (TOM) of the three sampling stations at Fenglin exceeded the critical threshold, namely 3.4%, and TOM in mangrove stations was higher than in the non-mangrove ones. A total of 91 macrobenthic taxa were obtained from the six sampling stations in Tong’an Bay, including 77 and 67 taxa from the mangrove and non-mangrove habitats, respectively. Mean macrobenthic densities in the mangrove and non-mangrove habitats were 4,445.8 inds/m²and 1,707.2 inds/m², respectively. Mean biomasses in the mangrove and non-mangrove habitats were 51.1 g/m² and 94.6 g/m², respectively. The results of an independent-samples t-test showed that mean density and mean biomass were significantly different in the two habitats. The present study revealed that the mangrove habitat has a positive influence on the Oligochaeta, such as Limnodriloides sp., that thrives in the high TOM sediments. Because of the shorter inundation period in the mangrove habitat, however, free-living molluscs and crustaceans preferred the non-mangrove habitat. Other sediment properties such as interstitial salinity and median particle diameter also affected the macrobenthic community.

Aims Mangrove plants are usually categorized as true mangrove plants and semi-mangrove plants on the basis of their distribution in inter-tidal regions. However, the identification of some fringe mangrove species found mainly on the landward transitional zones is controversial. Specific leaf area (SLA, leaf area per unit dry mass) and mass- and area-based leaf nitrogen concentrations (N_mass and N_area) are important leaf traits for plants, but relevant comparative research on true and semi-mangrove plants is unavailable. Our objective was to determine differences between the two groups and to classify the controversial species according to their leaf traits. Ultimately, this will assist in the management, protection and utilization of mangrove forest.
Methods Three individuals in similar growth sites were chosen for each species from Hainan Island. Fully expanded mature leaves were sampled from the upper canopy of all plants. Succulence (water content per unit leaf area), SLA, N_mass and N_area of mature leaves were studied for 33 species, representing all but three of the mangrove species in China.
Important findings True mangrove plants accumulated more Cl and water per unit leaf area than semi-mangrove plants, except for Pemphis acidula, Hernandia sonora and Clerodendrum inerme. Cl and water content per unit leaf area of true mangrove plants were generally >2.5 mg·cm^-2 and >2.4 g·dm^-2, respectively. Cl concentrations were positively related to succulence for all mangrove species. True mangrove plants had low SLA (<100 cm ²·g^-1) and high N_area; however, semi-mangrove plants had high SLA (mean of 160.4 cm ²·g^-1). Pemphis acidula had much lower SLA than other semi-mangrove species. Our study suggested that there are significant differences between true mangrove plants and semi-mangrove plants in leaf Cl concentration, succulence, SLA, N_mass and N_area. Heritiera littoralis, Excoecaria agallocha, Acrostichum aureum and Acrostichum speciosum are better classified as semi-mangrove plants, while Acanthus ilicifolius and Acanthus ebrecteatus are classified as true mangrove plants, and Xylocarpus granatum needs further research.

To elucidate the macrofaunal community structure and diversity in Jimei Fenglin mangrove area, we investigated macrofauna in January, April, July, and October 2002. A total of 42 species were collected and identified. Of these, the dominant species in biomass were Cerithidea cingulata and Uca arcuata, while the dominant species in density were Limnodriloides sp. and Assiminea brevicula. The average density and average biomass at all sampling stations in four surveys was 1,990 ind./m² and 139.0 g/m², respectively. The density ranked in the following order: January (winter)>April (spring) >October (autumn) >July (summer), while the biomass ranked January>October>April>July. Cluster analysis and quantitative distribution showed that the seasonal variations of Cerithidea cingulata, Uca arcuata, Limnodriloides sp., and Assiminea brevi-cula were different. The average species diversity index of the macrofaunal community in Jimei Fenglin in October 2002 (2.66) was higher than that in Futian, Shenzhen (0.56). The environmental factors that affect macrofaunal diversity were analyzed.

We determined the δ¹³C values of leaf samples collected from plants belonging to 6 genera in the Rhizophoraceae family grown in four locations in China, including three coastal areas (Dongzhaigang of Hainan Province, Xiamen of Fujian Province, Beihai of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region), and one inland area (Xishuangbanna of Yunan Province) in May and September, 2002. The nine plant species included Carallia brachiata, C. diphopetala, Pellacalyx yunnanensis, Rhizophora apiculata, R. stylosa, Bruguiera sexangula, B. gymnorhiza, Kandelia candel, and Ceriops tagal. The results indicated that leaf δ¹³C values, corresponding to integrated wateruse efficiency (WUE) (ratio of CO₂ assimilation rate to leaf transpiration), ranged from -32‰ to -26‰, but did not vary significantly between May and September in most of those plant species. However, there were significant differences in leafδ¹³C values among growing environments with lower foliar δ¹³C values for the plants grown in the inland than those in the coastal areas on two sampling dates, indicating a higher intercellular CO₂ concentration and thus a lower water use efficiency for the plants grown in the inland. In addition, among those plants living in the coastal areas, the leaves of plants grown in the Beihai had the highest δ¹³C values indicating the lowest intercellular CO₂ concentration and thus highest WUE, which may be caused by the high salt content in the seawater or high water stress in Beihai. Our results suggest that the foliar δ¹³C values of the plants in the Rhizophoraceae family could be highly affected by intermittent environmental factors, although their genetic characteristics may play a significant role in determining their foliar δ¹³C values.

Four species of diatoms from the mangroves in Fujian Province and Shenzhen City of China are described. They are Cymbella cucumis A. Schmidt, Navicula elegantoides Hustedt, N. platyventris Meister, and N. tenera Hustedt. They represent new records for China. Detailed description of the taxonomic characters of the four species and of their ecological behavior is given. Cymbella cucumis was defined as a freshwater and brackish water species for it occurred, though occasionally, where water salinity was more than 15.

Based on seasonal investigations by block net in 1999, the dynamics of species diversity of fishes in creek tidal waters within mangrove swamps of Yingluo Bay, Guangxi, were studied. Fifty four species of fishes, belonging to 44 genera and 29 families, were recorded. The numbers of species occurring in one to four seasons were 27, 8, 11 and 8, respectively. The dominant species in each season were very obvious, but the most dominant species differed in different seasons. The most dominant species were Clupanodon punctatus in spring, Osteomugil ophuyseni in summer, Ambassis gymnocephalus in autumn and Leiognathus ruconius in winter. As to theirtemperature tolerances, the warm-water species absolutely occupied the largest percentage. Numbers of demersal species were greater than other ecological types. Thirty species in spring, 30 in summer, 26 in autumn, and 22 in winter were captured in the creek waters. Twenty species were shared between summer and autumn, which was higher than that between any other pairs of seasons. This was also reflected in the similarity index between the two seasons, which reached 55.6% for the summer autumn comparison. The indices of richness D , diversity H ′, and evenness J , were all higher in autumn than in other seasons. Numbers of fish species and the three biodiversity indices in creek tidal waters were all higher than that in mangrove fringed tidal waters. The species diversity of the fish community in these waters was low in comparison with that in tropical mangrove areas.

The Yingluo Bay is located in Hepu county, Guangxi, China, and has an area of mangrove approximately 80 hm2 in size. These mangrove communities belong to the estuarine mangrove vegetation type. These communities show distributional zones in the different

The characteristics of the height structure of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza population in National Shankou Mangrove Nature Reserve were studied by measuring the fractal dimension of height contour. The results showed that the height structure of B. gymnorrhiza p

The quality of Bruguiera gymnorrhiza and Rhizophora stylosa hypocotyl budding and rooting in water of different salinities (expressed relative to normal sea water) was studied in seeds from the Guangxi coast. Seawater salinity lower than 10‰ promoted the budding and rooting of B. gymnorrhiza hypocotyls. Relative to those grown in water with salinity levels higher than 20‰ and 30‰ these began rooting about 6 days earlier and mean rooting was 7.1-4.8 days earlier. Rooting rates were 20%-30%. The best seawater salinity condition for R. stylosa hypocotyl rooting was about 20‰ at which the rooting rate and mean rooting rate were 90% and 68% respectively. The rooting rate was only 40% in freshwater. A novel bimodal phenomenon in the continuous rooting rate of B. gymnorrhiza hypocotyles was also observed. Budding of R. stylosa hypocotyls appears to be limited when their base is exposed to light.

The influence of salinity (0‰～50‰) in sand culture on the growth of mangrove species, Sonneratia apetala seedlings was studied. The number of leaves, the length of stem and root, the fresh weight of shoot and root system were inhibited with the increase of salinity. With the increase of salinity, the survival rate of seedlings decreased. The results showed that low salinity (0‰～10‰) promoted the leaf area expansion of S. apetala seedling, while high salinity (15‰～40‰) inhibited it. Content of chlorophyll decreased at lower salt concentration and increased at higher salt concentration. S. apetala seedlings grew normally at low saline habitats when it was lower than 25‰.

This paper reported the results of avian survey in mangrove wetland of Qinglangang. Fifty two species of birds were recorded , belonging to 19 families , nine orders. Of them , 23 species were migratory birds , 29 resident birds ; 31 were waterbirds and 21 terrestrial birds. Three species were listed as national second-class protected birds , 17 species listed in the Sino-Japan Migratory Birds Protection Agreement , 18 species lised in Sino-Australia Migratory Birds Protection Agreement . Number of birds varied with seasons. The number of bird species as a whole and waterbird species were the most in winter and the least in summer. The annual trend of species number was exhibited in this order : winter > autumn > spring > summer. Migratory birds affected the annual fluctuation of bird species. The composition and number of birds varied with food condition and area of habitats. This paper also discussed the status of avian diversity in Qinglangang Reserve.

Mangroves are woody plant communities which occur in the intertidal zones on tropical and subtropical coast . To adapt itself to the habitat , this plant species has developed special morphological , physiological and reproductive characters. Therefore , it is an important swamp along coastline. In this paper , current progress in studies of mangroves species diversity , adaptation , phenology and molecular diversity was described.

Using a static chamber technique, methane fluxes from sediments of five mangrove communities at four sites were studied. An average value of 0.81mg·m-2·d-1 was observed. Using polyethylene bags, methane fluxes through leaves of six mangrove species were also studied. It indicates that mangrove leaves generally absorbed atmospheric methane as an overall effect. Diurnal variations of methane fluxes from sediments of Bruguiera sexangula community at Changning site were related to tidal conditions in the forest while flat variations of methane fluxes from sediments of this community were related to soil water contents. There were two different seasonal patterns of methane flux from soils in the five mangrove communities.

Located in Shenzhen Special Economic Zone,Futian Mangrove and Birds Nature Reserve is one of the regious with rich biodiversity.Under the great pressure from the rapid economic development and increasing expansion of the urban district,the nature reserve readjusts its management strategies from isolated conservation to open conservation and improve the involvement of local communities,local governments and neighbouring bodies in the comanagement of biodiversity.By means of development of ecotourism,fish ponds and low-lying land economy within sea wall,the natural reserve changes its role in the natural conservation.In order to ensure the implement of open management strategies on local nature reserve management should be put forward.

This paper reported the results of investigation on benthic macrofauna on mud flat in Dongzhaigang Mangrove Reserve , Hainan. Sixty eight species of benthic macrofauna , belonging to six Phyla , 34 families were found. The dominant species were Cerithidea cingulata , Batillaria cumingi , Cyclotellina remies and Potamocorbula rubromuscula of Mollusca. The mean biomass of benthic macrofaunu in summer and in winter was 133.0 g/m² and 63.0 g/m² , respectively. The mean densities were 106.4 ind./m² in summer and 103. 5 ind./m² in winter. The species diversity indexes of benthic macrofaunu in summer and in winter were 1.841 and 0.380 , respectively. The species evenness indexes were 0.514 and 0.113 , respectively. The biomass diversity indexes of benthic macrofaunu were 1.994 in summer and and 1.751 in winter. The biomass evenness indexes were 0.556 and 0.520 , respectively. The biomass , density , species diversity index and biomass diversity index of benthic macrofauna varied with season and substrate. All these values were greater in summer than in winter , greater in sand2mud substrate than in mud substrate

The paper deals with the influence of salinity on the changes in caloric values and ash contents of different parts of Kandelia candel seedlings cultivated for 170 days. The results indicate that the medium salinity had little influence on the caloric values and ash contents of hypocotyls other than those of root, stem and leaf. The caloric values of root, stem, and leaf increased with the salt stress at low salinity, and decreased with the salt stress at high salinity. The caloric values of root, stem and leaf reached the peak under the medium salinity of 15‰,20‰ and 25‰ ,respectively. The medium salinity of 15‰ was the upper limit for the normal living of K. candel The caloric value was a good physiological index for determining salt-resistance of species.

The species composition, structure, plysiognomy and succession of mangrove community near Aotou port, Daya are disscussed in this paper. 7 main types of mangrove community are found in this area, there are Avicennia marina community, A. marina + Kandelia candel-Aegiceras corniculatum community, Excoecaria agallocha-Bruguiera gymnorhiza community, Excoecaria agallocha Aegiceras corniculatum community, Aegiceras corniculatum community, and Acanthus ilicifolius community.

Leaf cold resistance abilities of mangrove species along the eastsouthern coast of China had been measured by conductivity method. The results show: (1)The cold resistance abilities (LT50) of 16 mangrove species at Dongzhai Estuary,Qiongshan. Hainan province were from -2.3 ℃ to -6.8℃. The species from Rhizophoraceae had higher cold resistance abilities than that from Sonneratiaceae and Meliaceae, so most of them could be classified into low cold sensitivity type (L type) ,and the late ones into high cold sensitivity type (H type). (2)As the latitude increased, the cold resistance abilities of Kandelia candel and Aegiceras corniculatum also increased, and reflected the trend of population differentiation(except one location). (3) At the same location, Kandelia candel and Aegiceras corniculatum had the lowest cold resistance abilities in summer, and higher cold resistance abilities in autumn and winter than those in spring. (4) Among the same mangrove community, Kandelia candel plants growing in the middle tidal zone had higher cold resistance ability than those in the high tidal zone, but no this difference was found in Aegiceras corniculatum. (5) Kandelia candel and Aegiceras corniculatum leaves had different cold resistance abilities according to their locations on the community crown. The cold resistance ability of leaves decreased from upper surface to lower layer, and from surface to inner part. The population differentiation ,season changes ,and leaf location variation of mangrove cold resistance abilities were due to the ecological adaptation to various habitats which were beneficial for the survival and regeneration of mangroves.

This paper deals with the characters of the flora, type, physiognomy, structure, species diversity and succession of the mangrove communities in Yingluo Bay of Gauangxi. In this district ,the mangrove communities consist of 6 species belonging to 6 genera in 4 families. Using clustering analysis, twenty two plots of the mangrove communities were classified into eleven formations. The classification results are: (l) Form Bruguinera gymnorrhiza, (2)form Bruguieira gymnorrhiza+ Rhizophora stylosa, ( 3 ) Form Rhizophora stylosa , (4) form Rhizophora stylosa+ Kandelia candel, ( 5 )form Kandelia candel, ( 6 )Form Kandelia candel+ Aegicerad corniculatum, ( 7 ) Form Kandelia candel + Avicennia marina, (8)Form Aegiceras corniculatum , ( 9 )Form Avicennia marina, ( 10 ) Form Avecennia marina + Aegiceras corniculatum and ( 11 ) Form Excoecaria agallocha. The physiognomy of the mangrove communities was dominated by both the life form (Rannkiaer’s system,1967)with phanerophyte and the leave characters with mesophylls,coriaceous texture,single form and entire margin. The structure of the mangrove communities was rather simple, one layer or two layers. The constructive species and dominant species of the mangrove communities were evident. Compared with those of terrestrial plant communities, the species diversity indices of the mangrove communities were much low. Under the influence of soil texture, nutrition, environment salinity as well as the mangrove’s adaptability to the salt environment, various types of the mangrove communities form evident ecological series. Along with the relative reduction of sea level and physical and chemical amendment of the soils, the mangrove community succession was gradual and progressive, from simple pioneer stage to the ultimate or terrestrial stage. The succession change was brought about by the mangrove themselves an the habitat. At each succession stage, the mangrove species modified the environment to be less suitable for themselves but more suitable for others. Thus the species replacement was orderly and predictable, and permited directionality for succession. With the modification of the soils from sandy, silt to clay, the changes of the mangrove communities were sequential. On the basis of their development and zonation, the typical successive series of the mangrove communities in Yingluo Bay are as Fig. 2.

This paper describes research on change of the decay leaf microorganisms and leaf-litter decomposition in process of natural decomposition by man-made initation in Kandelia mangroves of Jiulongjiang River Fsturay.The results showed that:

1.Total amounts of microorganisms of the decay leaves varies significantly during the decomposition process, all along the bacterial amounts was preponderance. The amounts of bacterial increase from 200 × 104 to 8800 × 104ind./ g.d.w, with decomposition time of leaves. That accounted for 96 to 99% of total amounts of microorganisms (including three grounp of bacteria, actinomyces and filamentous fungi etc. ) which showed the bacteria as major microorganisms in leaf-litter decomposition.

2.The ammonifying bacteria preponderate in number from 26× 104 to 180 × 104 (ind./g.d.w.in various physiologic group of microorganisms; whereas nitrite bacteria, denitrifying bacteria and celluase decomposing microorganisms were (ind./g.d.w) 0.03×104 to 0.24×104, 0.03×104 to 0.10 ×104 and 1.14× 10 to 7.33×10 respectively. This showed that the ammonifying bacteria was the major physiologic group of organic mineralization. Ammonification, nitrification and denitrifying were the accompying processes with increasing intensity as time elapsed which reflect the features of marsh. The amounts of cellulose decomposing microorganisms had changed exceptional, population increased at earlier stage of decomposition until the fourth week to the its peck value, and decreased thereafter. The microbial activation testing result showed the similar trends in the change of microbial physiologic group mentioned above.

3. The leaf-litter decomposition speed proceeded rapidly. One week after the drop of the leaves on the soil surface, one quarter of the organic matters was decomposed and half-decomposition time was about 6 weeks. The contents of soluble sugar and total phosphorus decreased, but total nitrogen increased in remainder leaves.

The activity and isozyme of peroxidase in leaf and root tip of the seedling of two mangrove species, Kandelia candeI and Bruguiera sexangula, cultivated in sand beds irrigated with seawates of different salinity were studied.The results showed that: (1) With increase in salinity, the activity of peroxidase in leaf of K. candel got enhanced in lower salinity (from 0 to 10) and decreased over 15‰ salinity, but the activity in root tip decreased as the salinity increased from 0‰ to 35‰. (2) The activity of peroxidase in leaf of B. sexangula declined with increasing salinity from 5‰ to 35‰, whereas that in root tip increased with salinity from 5‰ to 10‰, and began to decrease over 15. The decreasing trend slowed down in both leaf and root tip in the range of 25--35‰ salinity. (3) The peroxidase activity of Kandelia was less sensitive to salinity than that of Bruguiera. The results showed that peroxidase activity may be used as an indicator of salinity tolerance, ie. Kandelia can grow in higher salinity than Bruguiera. (4) Electrophoresis maps of peroxidase isozyme in two plants on polyacrylamide gel indicated that the main isozyme bands were more stable than the low-class isozyme bands in response to salinity.