Aims Mucuna is a pantropically distributed genus of leguminous lianas, renowned for its unique ecological traits such as cauliflory, explosive pollination, and vine strangling, as well as its diverse economic, medicinal, and ornamental values, making it an ideal model for studying plant–animal mutualism and coadaptation. Based on a systematic review of global literature from 1970–2025, including gray literature, this study analyzes how multisensory signals (visual, olfactory, auditory, tactile) during flowering and fruiting/seed dispersal phases shape pollination and seed dispersal syndromes in Mucuna, and compares the geographic differentiation of pollination modes with the convergent features of seed dispersal mechanisms across continents. Results Our synthesis show clear intercontinental divergence in pollination systems: in South America, M. holtonii and M. urens have evolved an acoustic–olfactory syndrome dependent on echolocating bats, using concave banner petals to reflect ultrasound and secreting sulfur-rich nectar at night to target bat pollinators; M. japira exhibits a visual–taste syndrome relying on birds, attracting Cacicus haemorrhous with bright yellow flowers and fructose-rich nectar, and utilizing butterfly pupae as an indirect trigger for explosive pollination. In Asia, several species of the Macrocarpa subgenus have developed an olfactory–climbing accessibility syndrome mediated by non-volant mammals (squirrels, macaques, civets), employing cauliflory, strong putrid odor, and short pedicels to facilitate nectar access and flower triggering in dense forests. In seed dispersal, several Mucuna species from both South American and Asian exhibit convergent seed dispersal syndromes shaped by scatter-hoarding rodents, characterized by synergistic adaptations in seed size and morphology, nutrient content, and physical and chemical defenses. Seeds are generally large (several grams fresh weight), rich in protein and lipids, and possess a hard woody hull and high L-DOPA concentration—a “high reward–high defense” combination—that attracts rodents while deterring immediate consumption through increased handling costs and toxicity. Rodents carry seeds and cache them singly within ~20 m of parent plants, effectively reducing density-dependent predation and enhancing germination chances. In Asia (China), research on M. sempervirens provided the first empirical evidence of rodents performing dual mutualism in both pollination and seed dispersal, suggesting this pattern may be widespread among Asian Mucuna. By integrating literature survey and methodological systems, this study has refined the technical framework for exploring the pollination and seed dispersal of Mucuna species. It is expected to provide new insights into the biogeographic dynamic mechanisms of co-adaptation between Mucuna and its animal partners, and to offer scientific support for its in-situ conservation and management practices.

The insect gall ecosystem exhibits complex ecological interactions, harbors rich biodiversity, and holds significant agricultural and economic importance. However, insufficient understanding regarding gall complexity, formation mechanisms, and diversification significantly hinders the effective control of gall-inducing pests and the large-scale application of valuable galls. This review discusses the multi-dimensional regulatory mechanisms underlying gall complexity, formation, and diversification, and proposes potential research directions. Galls constitute complex ecological interaction networks centered on insect-plant interactions, in which both biotic and abiotic factors collectively influence the interaction dynamics and phenotypic complexity of galls. Nevertheless, the ecological consequences of these intricate interactions still await systematic elucidation. The complexity of gall-formation mechanisms may explain the overall complexity and phenotypic diversity of galls. Current research implicates that multiple factors are involved in gall formation and diversification, including gene expression changes, effector protein interactions, hormone dynamics, secondary metabolite metabolism, plant physiological shifts, epigenetic modifications, and insect symbionts. However, the detailed mechanisms and synergistic pathways involving multiple factors remain unclear. Future research could integrate multi-omics, artificial intelligence, real-time visualization sensors, and gene editing technologies to advance the following areas: 1) Establish a gall diversity database and develop more model systems similar to Ab‑GALFA; 2) Identify additional insect effector proteins and their target proteins to elucidate their interaction patterns; 3) Clarify the spatiotemporal dialogue mechanisms within hormone regulatory networks (of both insect and plant origin); 4) Elucidate the role of secondary metabolite-mediated insect–plant defense/counter-defense interactions in gall formation and strengthen research on insect detoxification mechanisms targeting gall secondary metabolites. 5) Investigate the roles of epigenetic regulation and insect symbionts in the induction and development of galls; 6) Uncover the synergistic effects and underlying mechanisms of multiple factors in gall formation and diversification. Advances in these fields will elucidate the regulatory mechanisms governing gall ecosystem formation, maintenance, and diversification, thereby providing a theoretical foundation for developing efficient pest control strategies and enabling the large-scale utilization of economically valuable galls.

Aims Leaf vein networks reflect plant hydraulic efficiency and ecological strategies. Traditionally, vein density is considered to be primarily constrained by climatic factors, particularly water conditions. However, whether conclusions derived from the physiological mechanisms of extant species can effectively explain trait evolution-ary patterns on a macro-evolutionary deep-time scale remains a subject of significant controversy. This study aims to systematically explore the evolutionary trajectory of vein density and its potential driving factors. Methods We integrated vein density data from 2,642 extant species globally and 41 Cenozoic fossil plant mor-photypes. By combining high-resolution paleoclimate records with data on insect species diversity across geolog-ical periods, we analyzed the evolutionary patterns using phylogenetic comparative methods and time-series analyses. Important findings 1) In a phylogenetic context, the vein density of extant species is correlated with annual precipitation and precipitation seasonality; 2) On a geological time scale, the long-term evolutionary trend of vein density is consistent with the trend of global climate change, but single climatic factors fail to fully explain the evolutionary variation of vein density; 3) The diversification of generalist herbivorous insects is synchronous with the long-term variation trend of vein density, showing a significant positive correlation. These results reveal that the evolution of angiosperm vein density in the Cenozoic was not driven solely by environmental factors but may also be an adaptation to the feeding pressure brought by the diversification of herbivorous insects. This study highlights the key driving role of biotic interactions in the macro-evolution of plant traits.

Ultraviolet colour vision is widespread in many animals. UV photography has become a powerful tool for studying colour-mediated plant–animal interactions. However, acquiring true UV images still involves technical hurdles, and the technique is often confused with UV-induced fluorescence photography, leading to misinterpretation of results. Here we introduce the biological significance of UV and fluorescence pattern, and interpret common misconceptions. We also introduce the principles, equipment configurations, and key operational steps for obtaining both UV-reflectance and fluorescence images with digital cameras. By analysing matched sets of visible-light, UV, and fluorescence images of diverse flowers, we demonstrate the fundamental differences and limited connections between the two imaging approaches. Although fluorescence and UV-reflectance images both relate to floral pigment chemistry, the relationship is complex and fluorescence images cannot substitute for UV images in quantitative analyses. We also provide a detailed hardware guide for UV photography and an affordable smartphone-based workflow, offering an accessible entry point for researchers interested in biological colour studies.

Aims Understanding how ecological communities assemble is crucial for biodiversity conservation. However, related studies face challenges due to complex species composition and unclear community boundaries etc.. The fig–fig wasp system, with the its enclosed inflorescence (syconium) hosting specialized wasp species, provides a simplified model to study assembly mechanisms. This study examines how dispersal and selection processes shape fig wasp communities and evaluates this system's potential for broader ecological research. Methods This study monitored the dispersal rhythm and measured the ovipositor length of 7 fig wasp species in Ficus auriculata. Fig wasp community composition was collected and analyzed the relationship between species abundance and traits related to dispersal or oviposition selection.. Important findings The dispersal process of fig wasp foundress significantly affected the species abundance of the offspring wasp community: Pollinater Ceratosolen emarginatus is dominance in both dispersal foundress and offspring abundance. Non-pollinating wasp Sycoscapter roxburghi ranks second, while Platyneura sp.1, Platyneura sp.2, and Philotrypesis sp. show relatively low dispersal foundress and offspring abundance. The dispersal strength of fig wasp foundress increased offspring numbers, but no significant priority effects were observed.; The oviposition related traits of fig wasps also significantly affected the number of offsprings: Pollinators (ovipositing inside fig) had higher offspring abundance than non-pollinators (ovipositing outside fig), and longer ovipositors in non-pollinators correlated with increased offspring production in fig wasp communities. This study provides empirical evidences support the role of both dispersal and selection processes in community assembly, and further explores the potential value of the fig wasp community as a new model system for studying community assembly mechanisms.

Improtant findings A total of 6,507 valid images documenting flower-visiting behaviour were obtained, from which 1,211 flower-visitation events were identified. These interactions involved 190 visited plant species, including cultivars, and 67 flower-visiting insect species. The flower-visiting insect assemblage was dominated by bees, butterflies, and hoverflies, and Apis cerana andPieris rapae were the two most frequently recorded insect species. The frequently visited plants mainly included horticultural species and cultivars, e.g., Rudbeckia laciniata and Salvia farinacea. In this flower-visitation network, we found the connectance of 0.0438, the network-level specialization value of 0.325, the nestedness index of 13.38, and the modularity index of 0.443. These results indicated relatively specialized interactions and the presence of a modular structure. A total of 13 modules were identified, of which six large modules contained 635 flower-visitation events, and plants within some modules shared similar floral traits. Comparing with the random removal scenario, the robustness of the flower-visitation network was more sensitive to the plant-removal sequences based on the number of interaction partners and species strength than to random plant extinction. Based on these network indices, Salvia farinacea, Rudbeckia laciniata, and Gomphrena globosa were identified as important nectar and pollen sources. Species-level specialization further indicated that native plants such as Clerodendrum trichotomum supported many specialized flower-visiting insects. Overall, using the data from a public-participation citizen-science programm, this study revealed the structural characters of a flower-visitation network in a typical urban greenspace and identified the key nectar and pollen source plants. Our findings provide novel insights into the greenspace design and the conservation of pollinating insects in cities.

Aims: A high degree of phenological matching between plants and pollinators is a prerequisite for efficient mutualism. Investigating their phenological matching under climate warming is of great significance for scientifically assessing the dynamic evolution of pollination networks. Methods: Focusing on a typical alpine grassland community in the Qilian Mountains, this study comprehensively quantified the phenological matching between plants and pollinators across four scales: individual, population, functional group, and community levels. This multi-scale assessment utilized multiple parameters, including absolute mismatch, relative mismatch, overlap duration, and coupling degree. Important findings: Results demonstrated that phenological mismatches are ubiquitous across all organizational levels. The magnitude and variance of mismatches gradually increased as the analytical scale decreased from the community, functional group, and population to the individual level. Compared with early-flowering plants, mid- and late- flowering plants had a higher risk of mismatch. Among different plant species, coupling degree with key pollinator generally decreased with longer mismatch durations. Both the mismatch patterns of “pollinator peaks earlier” and “flower peaks earlier” were observed, with the former occurring more frequently than 60% in natural community. This phenomenon was more pronounced in mid- and late-flowering groups, and the severity of mis-match for the former was more pronounced than for the later in late-flowering group. Overall, the phenological matching between plants and pollinators in the alpine grassland of the Qilian Mountains exhibited complex multi-scale characteristics and significant pattern differentiation. Future research should integrate multi-scale interactions and distinct mismatch patterns to accurately evaluate the ecological consequences of phenological mismatches in alpine ecosystems.

Aims Floral traits acting as primary mediators of plant–insect interactions, exert a direct influence on the foraging preferences and pollination efficiency of insects, particularly in urban green spaces. Investigating the effects of floral traits on flower visiting insect preference and community structure in urban green spaces can provide a scientific basis for conserving flower visiting insect diversity and constructing insect friendly habitats. Methods Six urban parks in Fuzhou were selected as study sites. A total of 124 flowering plant species were systematically observed for 12 floral traits (morphological and structural) and their associated diurnal flower visiting insect communities. An integrated approach combining random forest models, linear mixed models, canonical correspondence analysis (CCA), and functional diversity analysis was employed to examine the effects of floral traits on insect visitation frequency, preference, and community structure. Important findings Urban angiosperms exhibited a high degree of floral trait diversity. Random forest models identified stamen length, flowering height, and inflorescence type as key predictors of the number of flower visits; linear mixed models further highlighted inflorescence type as the primary determinant. CCA revealed distinct preference patterns: bees, syrphid flies and flies were attracted to yellow/white flowers with capitulum inflorescence and exserted stamen. Butterflies showed a preference for red/purple, bilateral symmetry, spike inflorescence. Furthermore, we observed that beetles, mosquitoes and other flower-visiting insects generally preferred asymmetry flowers with large corolla diameter, high flower height, and elongated stamen and gynoecium. Ants favored red flowers with long corolla tubes and cyme inflorescence. Floral trait functional diversity analysis showed that the diversity of corolla tube length, stamen length and gynoecium length significantly affected the evenness and dominance of insect communities. By increasing the overall functional diversity of floral traits, we can effectively promote species richness and community diversity while concurrently reducing species dominance. Community‑weighted means of stamen length, gynoecium length, tube length and tube diameter significantly influenced insect community structure and the number of flower visits. In summary, floral morphological and structural traits are key drivers of flower visiting insect preference and community structure in urban habitats, with distinct responses among insect functional groups. Our findings provide a scientific basis for constructing insect‑friendly urban plant communities.