Aims Mucuna is a pantropically distributed genus of leguminous lianas, renowned for its unique ecological traits such as cauliflory, explosive pollination, and vine strangling, as well as its diverse economic, medicinal, and ornamental values, making it an ideal model for studying plant–animal mutualism and coadaptation. Based on a systematic review of global literature from 1970–2025, including gray literature, this study analyzes how multisensory signals (visual, olfactory, auditory, tactile) during flowering and fruiting/seed dispersal phases shape pollination and seed dispersal syndromes in Mucuna, and compares the geographic differentiation of pollination modes with the convergent features of seed dispersal mechanisms across continents. Results Our synthesis show clear intercontinental divergence in pollination systems: in South America, M. holtonii and M. urens have evolved an acoustic–olfactory syndrome dependent on echolocating bats, using concave banner petals to reflect ultrasound and secreting sulfur-rich nectar at night to target bat pollinators; M. japira exhibits a visual–taste syndrome relying on birds, attracting Cacicus haemorrhous with bright yellow flowers and fructose-rich nectar, and utilizing butterfly pupae as an indirect trigger for explosive pollination. In Asia, several species of the Macrocarpa subgenus have developed an olfactory–climbing accessibility syndrome mediated by non-volant mammals (squirrels, macaques, civets), employing cauliflory, strong putrid odor, and short pedicels to facilitate nectar access and flower triggering in dense forests. In seed dispersal, several Mucuna species from both South American and Asian exhibit convergent seed dispersal syndromes shaped by scatter-hoarding rodents, characterized by synergistic adaptations in seed size and morphology, nutrient content, and physical and chemical defenses. Seeds are generally large (several grams fresh weight), rich in protein and lipids, and possess a hard woody hull and high L-DOPA concentration—a “high reward–high defense” combination—that attracts rodents while deterring immediate consumption through increased handling costs and toxicity. Rodents carry seeds and cache them singly within ~20 m of parent plants, effectively reducing density-dependent predation and enhancing germination chances. In Asia (China), research on M. sempervirens provided the first empirical evidence of rodents performing dual mutualism in both pollination and seed dispersal, suggesting this pattern may be widespread among Asian Mucuna. By integrating literature survey and methodological systems, this study has refined the technical framework for exploring the pollination and seed dispersal of Mucuna species. It is expected to provide new insights into the biogeographic dynamic mechanisms of co-adaptation between Mucuna and its animal partners, and to offer scientific support for its in-situ conservation and management practices.

The insect gall ecosystem exhibits complex ecological interactions, harbors rich biodiversity, and holds significant agricultural and economic importance. However, insufficient understanding regarding gall complexity, formation mechanisms, and diversification significantly hinders the effective control of gall-inducing pests and the large-scale application of valuable galls. This review discusses the multi-dimensional regulatory mechanisms underlying gall complexity, formation, and diversification, and proposes potential research directions. Galls constitute complex ecological interaction networks centered on insect-plant interactions, in which both biotic and abiotic factors collectively influence the interaction dynamics and phenotypic complexity of galls. Nevertheless, the ecological consequences of these intricate interactions still await systematic elucidation. The complexity of gall-formation mechanisms may explain the overall complexity and phenotypic diversity of galls. Current research implicates that multiple factors are involved in gall formation and diversification, including gene expression changes, effector protein interactions, hormone dynamics, secondary metabolite metabolism, plant physiological shifts, epigenetic modifications, and insect symbionts. However, the detailed mechanisms and synergistic pathways involving multiple factors remain unclear. Future research could integrate multi-omics, artificial intelligence, real-time visualization sensors, and gene editing technologies to advance the following areas: 1) Establish a gall diversity database and develop more model systems similar to Ab‑GALFA; 2) Identify additional insect effector proteins and their target proteins to elucidate their interaction patterns; 3) Clarify the spatiotemporal dialogue mechanisms within hormone regulatory networks (of both insect and plant origin); 4) Elucidate the role of secondary metabolite-mediated insect–plant defense/counter-defense interactions in gall formation and strengthen research on insect detoxification mechanisms targeting gall secondary metabolites. 5) Investigate the roles of epigenetic regulation and insect symbionts in the induction and development of galls; 6) Uncover the synergistic effects and underlying mechanisms of multiple factors in gall formation and diversification. Advances in these fields will elucidate the regulatory mechanisms governing gall ecosystem formation, maintenance, and diversification, thereby providing a theoretical foundation for developing efficient pest control strategies and enabling the large-scale utilization of economically valuable galls.

Aims Leaf vein networks reflect plant hydraulic efficiency and ecological strategies. Traditionally, vein density is considered to be primarily constrained by climatic factors, particularly water conditions. However, whether conclusions derived from the physiological mechanisms of extant species can effectively explain trait evolution-ary patterns on a macro-evolutionary deep-time scale remains a subject of significant controversy. This study aims to systematically explore the evolutionary trajectory of vein density and its potential driving factors. Methods We integrated vein density data from 2,642 extant species globally and 41 Cenozoic fossil plant mor-photypes. By combining high-resolution paleoclimate records with data on insect species diversity across geolog-ical periods, we analyzed the evolutionary patterns using phylogenetic comparative methods and time-series analyses. Important findings 1) In a phylogenetic context, the vein density of extant species is correlated with annual precipitation and precipitation seasonality; 2) On a geological time scale, the long-term evolutionary trend of vein density is consistent with the trend of global climate change, but single climatic factors fail to fully explain the evolutionary variation of vein density; 3) The diversification of generalist herbivorous insects is synchronous with the long-term variation trend of vein density, showing a significant positive correlation. These results reveal that the evolution of angiosperm vein density in the Cenozoic was not driven solely by environmental factors but may also be an adaptation to the feeding pressure brought by the diversification of herbivorous insects. This study highlights the key driving role of biotic interactions in the macro-evolution of plant traits.