Alternatives to species-level identification have been advocated as one solution to the problem of selecting marine reserves with limited information on the distribution of marine biodiversity.This study evaluated the effects on selection of candidate sites for marine reserves from using the higher-taxon approach as a surrogate for species-level identification of intertidal molluscs and rocky reef fishes. These effects were evaluated by determining the percentage of species included in candidate reserves identified from genus-, family- and order-level data by a complementarity-based reserve selection algorithm, and by testing for correlations between the irreplaceability values of locations. Candidate reserves identified from genus- and family-level data of intertidal molluscs included a similar percentage of all species as the reserves identified from species-level data. Candidate reserves selected from genus- and family-level data of rocky reef fishes included, respectively, 3 7% and 14 23% fewer species than reserves selected from species-level data. When the reserve identification process was constrained by a practical planning limit (a maximum of 20% locations able to be reserved) the reserves selected from genus- and family-level data of intertidal molluscs, and genus-level data of rocky reef fishes, included a similar percentage of species as the reserves identified from species-level data. Irreplaceability values of locations for species, genera and families of intertidal molluscs were highly correlated, and irreplaceability values of locations for species and genera of rocky reef fishes were highly correlated. This study suggests that genus- and family-level data for intertidal molluscs, and genus-level data for rocky reef fishes, are suitable surrogates for species in the identification of candidate sites for marine reserves.

It is widely believed that contemporary climate determines large-scale patterns of species richness. An alternative view proposes that species richness reflects biotic responses to historic climate changes. These competing "contemporary climate" vs "historic climate" hypotheses have been vigorously debated without reaching consensus. Here, we test the proposition that European species richness of reptiles and amphibians is driven by climate changes in the Quaternary. We find that climate stability between the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and the present day is a better predictor of species richness than contemporary climate; and that the 000°C isotherm of the LGM delimits the distributions of narrow-ranging species, whereas the current 000°C isotherm limits the distributions of wide-ranging species. Our analyses contradict previous studies of large-scale species richness patterns and support the view that "historic climate" can contribute to current species richness independently of and at least as much as contemporary climate.

The establishment of priorities among species is a crucial step in any conservation strategy since financial resources are generally limited. Traditionally, priorities for conservation of plant species have been focused on endemicity, rarity and particularly on their threatened status. Crop wild relatives (CWR) and wild harvested plants (WHP) are important elements of biodiversity with actual or potential socio-economic value. In this study, eight prioritisation criteria were used along with different prioritisation systems and applied to the Portuguese CWR and WHP. The top 50 species obtained by each of these methods were identified. The final top CWR were those that occurred as a priority in most methods. Twenty CWR were identified as the highest priorities for conservation in Portugal and they include wild relatives of the crop genera Allium , Daucus , Dianthus , Epilobium , Festuca , Herniaria , Narcissus , Quercus , Plantago , Trifolium , and Vicia . Eighteen WHP were recognised as priorities for conservation and include several Narcissus and Thymus species, among others. The advantages, limitations and level of subjectivity of each of the methods used in this exercise are discussed.

Known for centuries, the geographical pattern of increasing biodiversity from the poles to the equator is one of the most pervasive features of life on Earth. A longstanding goal of biogeographers has been to understand the primary factors that generate and maintain high diversity in the tropics. Many ‘historical’ and ‘ecological’ hypotheses have been proposed and debated, but there is still little consensus. Recent discussions have centred around two main phenomena: phylogenetic niche conservatism and ecological productivity. These two factors play important roles, but accumulating theoretical and empirical studies suggest that the single most important factor is kinetics: the temperature dependence of ecological and evolutionary rates. The relatively high temperatures in the tropics generate and maintain high diversity because ‘the Red Queen runs faster when she is hot’.

Freezing sensitivity of leaves and xylem was examined in four co-occurring Mediterranean oaks (Quercus spp.) grown in a common garden to determine whether freezing responses of leaves and xylem were coordinated and could be predicted by leaf lifespan. Freezing-induced embolism and loss of photosynthetic function were measured after overnight exposure to a range of subzero temperatures in both summer and winter. Both measures were found to be dependent on minimum freezing temperature and were correlated with leaf lifespan and vessel diameter. The dependence of xylem embolism on minimum freezing temperature may result from the decline in water potential with ice temperature that influences the redistribution of water during freezing and leads to an increase in xylem tension. Winter acclimatization had a relatively small effect on the vulnerability to freezing-induced embolism, although leaf photosynthetic function showed a strong acclimatization response, particularly in the two evergreen species. Quercus ilex, the species with the longest leaf lifespan and narrowest vessel diameters, showed the highest freezing tolerance. This helps explain its ability to inhabit a broad range throughout the Mediterranean region. By contrast, the inability of the deciduous oaks to maintain photosynthetic and vascular function throughout the winter indicates a competitive disadvantage that may prevent them from expanding their ranges.

Most previous molecular phylogenetic studies of Prunus have been conducted primarily with crop species and their close relatives. As the center of crop diversity of the genus is in Eurasia, the geographic origin of Prunus has inevitably been inferred to be Eurasia as well. The lesser-known tropical Prunus species have not been well represented in previous phylogenetic reconstructions; therefore, their effects on inferences about the phylogenetic structure and geographic origin of Prunus are uncertain. In this study, we examined the phylogeny of Prunus, including an expanded sampling of species from tropical regions in Southeast Asia and the Americas, using sequences from four plastid markers and the nuclear ribosomal ITS region. A penalized likelihood method was used to estimate the absolute age of Prunus and the timing of infrageneric cladogenic events. The geographic origin of Prunus and ancestral sites of cladogenesis were inferred using the Bayes-DIVA approach. Our results indicate that the modern genus appeared 61Myr in eastern Asia and that diversification of all major lineages may have been triggered by the global warming period of the early Eocene. In addition, our molecular dating estimates suggest that the crown clade that includes the temperate deciduous crop species is older than the one that includes the tropical evergreen species, while incongruence between plastid and nuclear phylogenies suggests that the latter lineage originated via an ancient hybridization event. The most recent common ancestor (MRCA) of the temperate crop species was a component of the continuous boreotropical forests of the Northern Hemisphere, while the MRCA of the tropical species represented the last remains of the boreotropical elements and subsequently radiated throughout the Old and New World tropics from refugial areas at lower latitudes. Complex biogeographic histories leading to the present global distribution of the genus were driven by several geologic events, climatic oscillations, and independent dispersals across continents via the Bering and the North Atlantic Land Bridges during different geologic time periods.

Amphibian population declines and sudden species' extinctions began to be noted at the beginning of the 1980s. Understanding the causes of the losses is hampered by our poor knowledge of the amphibian fauna in many parts of the world. Amphibian taxa are still being described at a high rate, especially in the tropics, which means that even quantifying species lost as a percentage of the current fauna can be a misleading statistic in some parts of the globe. The number of species that have gone missing is only one measure of the loss of biodiversity. Long-term studies of single-species populations are needed, but this approach has its limits. Amphibian populations often show great annual variation in population size making it difficult, if not impossible, to use short-term studies as a basis for deciding if a population is increasing or decreasing in the long term. Aggregating single studies into databases and searching for patterns of variation is a way of overcoming this limitation. Several databases on species and population time series are available or in development. These records show that declines are continuing worldwide with some species and populations, especially in the tropics and at higher elevations, at greater risk of extinction than others. Unfortunately, amphibian databases with population time series have much less information for the tropics compared to the temperate zone, and less for Africa and Asia compared with Europe and North America. Focusing limited resources using comprehensive statistical designs is a way to maximize the efficiency and effectiveness of monitoring efforts. It is clear that, in the first decades of the twenty-first century, the regions of the globe with the highest diversity of amphibian species will experience the greatest rates of decrease of forests and increase in human population size, fertilizer use, agricultural production, creation of new croplands and irrigation. Many of these changes are likely negatively to affect amphibian species diversity, and their influence must be understood before concluding, at least for amphibians, that the 2010 millennium assessment goal of significantly reversing the rate of loss of Earth's biodiversity can be met.

http://www.jstor.org/stable/2462155

A reconstruction of phylogenetic relationships based on three chloroplast DNA markers comprising 98 species of the genus Potentilla and 15 additional genera from the tribe Potentilleae (Rosaceae) is presented. The phylogeny supported the current generic concept of the subtribe Fragariinae and resolved major lineages within the subtribe Potentillinae. Resolved lineages corresponded to the combined genera Argentina, Piletophyllum, and Tylosperma, an European and Asian group of species approximately equivalent to the Trichocarpae Herbaceae sensu Th. Wolf, the series Tormentillae Th. Wolf, a North American clade comprising the genera Horkelia, Horkeliella, and Ivesia, the species Potentilla fragarioides and P. freyniana, and to a taxonomically highly diverse but molecularly little diverged core group of Potentilla, respectively. Age estimates of phylogenetic splits resolved in the Potentilleae using Bayesian inference, suggested a diversification of the tribe in the Eocene and radiation of two major evolutionary lineages corresponding to the Fragariinae and Potentillinae at approximately comparable times. Ancestral area reconstructions based on the recent distribution ranges of species and collection sites of cpDNA haplotypes suggested an Asian origin for Potentilla s.str., and explained the arrival of this still informal taxon in Europe and particularly North America by multiple dispersal events. In combining the phylogenetic and geographic data with molecularly inferred time estimates and taxonomy, strongly contrasting evolutionary patterns were identified. These evolutionary patterns included rapid speciation on a continental and worldwide scale accompanied by multiple intercontinental dispersals opposed to largely diverged lineages of limited taxonomic diversity and vicariant geographic distribution. The molecular-based phylogeographic hypothesis finally is discussed on the background of the fossil record of Potentilla.

Protecting biological diversity with limited resources may require placing conservation priorities on different taxa. A system of priorities that reflects the value of taxonomic diversity can be achieved by setting priorities such that the subset of taxa that is protected has maximum underlying feature diversity. Such feature diversity of taxon subsets is difficult to estimate directly, but can be predicted by the cladistic/phylogenetic relationships among the taxa. In this study, a simple measure of phylogenetic diversity is defined based on cladistic information. The measure of phylogenetic diversity, PD, is contrasted with a measure of taxic diversity recently developed by Vane-Wright et al. (Biol. Conserv., 55, 1991). In re-examining reserve-selection scenarios based on a phylogeny of bumble bees (Apidae), PD produces quite different priorities for species conservation, relative to taxic diversity. The potential application of PD at levels below that of the species is then illustrated using a mtDNA phylogeny for populations of crested newts Triturus cristatus. Calculation of PD for different population subsets shows that protection of populations at either of two extremes of the geographic range of the group can significantly increase the phylogenetic diversity that is protected.

A set of 120 simple sequence repeats (SSRs) was developed from the newly assembled pear sequence and evaluated for polymorphisms in seven genotypes of pear from different genetic backgrounds. Of these, 67 (55.8 %) primer pairs produced polymorphic amplifications. Together, the 67 SSRs detected 277 alleles with an average of 4.13 per locus. Sequencing of the amplification products from randomly picked loci NAUPy31a and NAUpy53a verified the presence of the SSR loci. When the 67 primer pairs were tested on 96 individual members of eight species in the Rosaceae family, 61.2 % (41/67) of the tested SSRs successfully amplified a PCR product in at least one of the Rosaceae genera. The transferability from pear to different species varied from 58.2 % (apple) to 11.9 % (cherry). The ratio of transferability also reflected the closer relationships within Maloideae over Prunoideae. Two pear SSR markers, NAUpy43c and NAUpy55k, could distinguish the 20 different apple genotypes thoroughly, and UPGMA cluster analysis grouped them into three groups at the similarity level of 0.56. The high level of polymorphism and good transferability of pear SSRs to Rosaceae species indicate their promise for application to future molecular screening, map construction, and comparative genomic studies among pears and other Rosaceae species. The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11105-013-0586-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Avian faunas vary greatly among montane areas; those at high latitudes are biologically impoverished, whereas those of some low-latitude mountains are biologically very complex. Their high level of species richness is caused by the aggregation of many small-ranged species, which has been difficult to explain from purely macroecological models focusing on contemporary ecological processes. Because the individual mountain tracts harbor species that represent different evolutionary trajectories, it seems plausible to relate these species assemblages to high persistence (or absence of extinction) in addition to high levels of speciation. The distribution of small-ranged species is concentrated near tropical coasts, where moderation of the climate in topographically complex areas creates cloud forests and stable local conditions. The stability underpins specialization and resilience of local populations, and thereby the role of these places as cradles of biodiversity.

One of the biggest challenges for conservation biology is to provide conservation planners with ways to prioritize effort. Much attention has been focused on biodiversity hotspots. However, the conservation of evolutionary process is now also acknowledged as a priority in the face of global change. Phylogenetic diversity (PD) is a biodiversity index that measures the length of evolutionary pathways that connect a given set of taxa. PD therefore identifies sets of taxa that maximize the accumulation of 'feature diversity'. Recent studies, however, concluded that taxon richness is a good surrogate for PD. Here we show taxon richness to be decoupled from PD, using a biome-wide phylogenetic analysis of the flora of an undisputed biodiversity hotspot--the Cape of South Africa. We demonstrate that this decoupling has real-world importance for conservation planning. Finally, using a database of medicinal and economic plant use, we demonstrate that PD protection is the best strategy for preserving feature diversity in the Cape. We should be able to use PD to identify those key regions that maximize future options, both for the continuing evolution of life on Earth and for the benefit of society.

Results from two perturbation experiments using the Community Climate System Model version 4 where the Southern Hemisphere zonal wind stress is increased are described. It is shown that the ocean response is in accord with experiments using much-higher-resolution ocean models that do not use an eddy parameterization. The key to obtaining an appropriate response in the coarse-resolution climate model is to specify a variable coefficient in the Gent and McWilliams eddy parameterization, rather than a constant value. This result contrasts with several recent papers that have suggested that coarse-resolution climate models cannot obtain an appropriate response.

Aim To investigate the relative contributions of current vs. historical factors in explaining broad-scale diversity gradients using a combination of contemporary factors and a quantitative estimate of the temporal accessibility of areas for recolonization created by glacial retreat following the most recent Ice Age. Location The part of the Nearctic region of North America that was covered by ice sheets during the glacial maximum 20 000 BP. Methods We used range maps to estimate the species richness of mammals and terrestrial birds in 48 400 km 2 cells. Current conditions in each cell were quantified using seven climatic and topographical variables. Historical conditions were estimated using the number of years before present when an area became exposed as the ice sheets retreated during the post-Pleistocene climate warming. We attempted to tease apart contemporary and historical effects using multiple regression, partial regression and spatial autocorrelation analysis. Results A measure of current energy inputs, potential evapotranspiration, explained 76 82% of the variance in species richness, but time since deglaciation explained an additional 8 13% of the variance, primarily due to effects operating at large spatial scales. Because of spatial covariation between the historical climates influencing the melting of the ice sheet and current climates, it was not possible to partition their effects fully, but of the independent effects that could be identified, current climate explained two to seven times more variance in richness patterns than age. Main Conclusions Factors acting in the present appear to have the strongest influence on the diversity gradient, but an historical signal persisting at least 13 000 years is still detectable. This has implications for modelling changes in diversity patterns in response to future global warming.

We developed interpolated climate surfaces for global land areas (excluding Antarctica) at a spatial resolution of 30 arc s (often referred to as 1-km spatial resolution). The climate elements considered were monthly precipitation and mean, minimum, and maximum temperature. Input data were gathered from a variety of sources and, where possible, were restricted to records from the 1950-2000 period. We used the thin-plate smoothing spline algorithm implemented in the ANUSPLIN package for interpolation, using latitude, longitude, and elevation as independent variables. We quantified uncertainty arising from the input data and the interpolation by mapping weather station density, elevation bias in the weather stations, and elevation variation within grid cells and through data partitioning and cross validation. Elevation bias tended to be negative (stations lower than expected) at high latitudes but positive in the tropics. Uncertainty is highest in mountainous and in poorly sampled areas. Data partitioning showed high uncertainty of the surfaces on isolated islands, e.g. in the Pacific. Aggregating the elevation and climate data to 10 arc min resolution showed an enormous variation within grid cells, illustrating the value of high-resolution surfaces. A comparison with an existing data set at 10 arc min resolution showed overall agreement, but with significant variation in some regions. A comparison with two high-resolution data sets for the United States also identified areas with large local differences, particularly in mountainous areas. Compared to previous global climatologies, ours has the following advantages: the data are at a higher spatial resolution (400 times greater or more); more weather station records were used; improved elevation data were used; and more information about spatial patterns of uncertainty in the data is available. Owing to the overall low density of available climate stations, our surfaces do not capture of all variation that may occur at a resolution of 1 km, particularly of precipitation in mountainous areas. In future work, such variation might be captured through knowledge-based methods and inclusion of additional co-variates, particularly layers obtained through remote sensing. Copyright 2005 Royal Meteorological Society.

Abstract I. II. III. IV. V. VI. References SUMMARY: Alpine plant radiations are compared across the world's major mountain ranges and shown to be overwhelmingly young and fast, largely confined to the Pliocene and Pleistocene, and some of them apparently in the early explosive phase of radiation. Accelerated diversification triggered by island-like ecological opportunities following the final phases of mountain uplift, and in many cases enabled by the key adaptation of perennial habit, provides a general model for alpine plant radiations. Accelerated growth form evolution facilitated by perenniality provides compelling evidence of ecological release and suggests striking parallels between island-like alpine, and especially tropicalpine radiations, and island radiations more generally. These parallels suggest that the world's mountains offer an excellent comparative system for explaining evolutionary radiation. 2015 The Authors. New Phytologist 2015 New Phytologist Trust.

61We demonstrate tangible advantages of phylodiversity to conservation61Study regions have a higher proportion of phylodiversity than species richness.61Low regional phylogenetic endemism was found despite high numbers of endemics.61High congruency found between PD and SR and between PE and WE within taxa61Biotic responses to evolutionary processes are strongly influenced by life history

The economically important plum or cherry genus (Prunus) and the subfamily Amygdaloideae of the Rosaceae have a controversial taxonomic history due to the lack of a phylogenetic framework. Phylogenetic analysis using the ITS sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA (nrDNA) was conducted to construct the evolutionary history and evaluate the historical classifications of Prunus and the Amygdaloideae. The analyses suggest two major groups within the Amygdaloideae: (1) Prunus s.l. (sensu lato) and Maddenia, and (2) Exochorda, Oemleria, and Prinsepia. The ITS phylogeny supports the recent treatment of including Exochorda (formerly in the Spiraeoideae) in the Amygdaloideae. Maddenia is found to be nested within Prunus s.l. in the parsimony and distance analyses, but basal to Prunus s.l. in the maximum likelihood analysis. Within Prunus, two major groups are recognizable: (1) the Amygdalus-Prunus group, and (2) the Cerasus-Laurocerasus-Padus group. The clades in the ITS phylogeny are not congruent with most subgeneric groups in the widely used classification of Prunus by Rehder. A broadly defined Prunus is supported.

pAbstract/p pBackground/p pThe control of plant anthocyanin accumulation is via transcriptional regulation of the genes encoding the biosynthetic enzymes. A key activator appears to be an R2R3 MYB transcription factor. In apple fruit, skin anthocyanin levels are controlled by a gene called itMYBA /itor itMYB1/it, while the gene determining fruit flesh and foliage anthocyanin has been termed itMYB10/it. In order to further understand tissue-specific anthocyanin regulation we have isolated orthologous itMYB /itgenes from all the commercially important rosaceous species./p pResults/p pWe use gene specific primers to show that the three MYB activators of apple anthocyanin (itMYB10/MYB1/MYBA) /itare likely alleles of each other. MYB transcription factors, with high sequence identity to the apple gene were isolated from across the rosaceous family (e.g. apples, pears, plums, cherries, peaches, raspberries, rose, strawberry). Key identifying amino acid residues were found in both the DNA-binding and C-terminal domains of these MYBs. The expression of these itMYB10 /itgenes correlates with fruit and flower anthocyanin levels. Their function was tested in tobacco and strawberry. In tobacco, these MYBs were shown to induce the anthocyanin pathway when co-expressed with bHLHs, while over-expression of strawberry and apple genes in the crop of origin elevates anthocyanins./p pConclusions/p pThis family-wide study of rosaceous R2R3 MYBs provides insight into the evolution of this plant trait. It has implications for the development of new coloured fruit and flowers, as well as aiding the understanding of temporal-spatial colour change./p

The cultivated strawberry, Fragaria ananassa, is one of the youngest domesticated plants. Its 18th century origin via hybridization in Europe between the North American F. virginiana and the South American F. chiloensis was documented by the botanist Antoine Nicolas Duchesne. His 1766 "Natural History of Strawberries" is an extraordinary work that integrates fundamental discoveries on the biology, ecology, and phylogeny of Fragaria with applied information on cultivation and ethnobotanical uses, serving as an inspiration for current research in the genus. Fragaria species exhibit the full range of sexual systems in the gynodioecy pathway from hermaphroditism to dioecy (and back again), as well as variation in self-compatibility, and evidence of sex chromosomes with female heterogamety. The genus is also characterized by interspecific hybridization and polyploidy, with a natural range of ploidy levels from diploids to decaploids. This biological diversity, combined with the availability of genomic resources and the ease of growing and experimenting with the plants, makes Fragaria a very attractive system for ecological and evolutionary genomics. The goal of this review is to introduce Fragaria as a model genus and to provide a roadmap for future integrative research. These research directions will deepen our understanding of the ecological and evolutionary context that shaped the ancestors of the cultivated strawberry, not only providing information that can be applied to efforts to shape the future of this important fruit crop but also our understanding of key transitions in plant evolution.

AbstractAimWhether richness patterns and determinants are consistent between common and rare species remains controversial, and the answer is fundamental for the conservation of species in ...

Phylogeographic relationships were constructed for 72 Old and New World Crataegus species using combinations of four chloroplast and up to five nuclear regions. Maximum parsimony, maximum likelihood, and Bayesian results yield consistent relationships among major lineages. The close associations of the East Asian and western North American species point toward ancient trans-Beringian migrations. Relationships among eastern North American species are poorly resolved and few groups are identified that are congruent with existing classifications. Scant variation and short internal branches among these species suggest rapid divergence associated with polyploidy and hybridization. Incongruence between the chloroplast and nuclear data, and morphology suggest hybrid origins of three species from an extinct European lineage (the male parent) and three different North American female parents. Europe and eastern North America are suggested as the most recent common areas for Crataegus; at least four dispersal events are inferred to explain the present distribution of the genus.

Abstract The ranges of plants and animals are moving in response to recent changes in climate. As temperatures rise, ecosystems with 'nowhere to go', such as mountains, are considered to be more threatened. However, species survival may depend as much on keeping pace with moving climates as the climate's ultimate persistence. Here we present a new index of the velocity of temperature change (km yr(-1)), derived from spatial gradients ( degrees C km(-1)) and multimodel ensemble forecasts of rates of temperature increase ( degrees C yr(-1)) in the twenty-first century. This index represents the instantaneous local velocity along Earth's surface needed to maintain constant temperatures, and has a global mean of 0.42 km yr(-1) (A1B emission scenario). Owing to topographic effects, the velocity of temperature change is lowest in mountainous biomes such as tropical and subtropical coniferous forests (0.08 km yr(-1)), temperate coniferous forest, and montane grasslands. Velocities are highest in flooded grasslands (1.26 km yr(-1)), mangroves and deserts. High velocities suggest that the climates of only 8% of global protected areas have residence times exceeding 100 years. Small protected areas exacerbate the problem in Mediterranean-type and temperate coniferous forest biomes. Large protected areas may mitigate the problem in desert biomes. These results indicate management strategies for minimizing biodiversity loss from climate change. Montane landscapes may effectively shelter many species into the next century. Elsewhere, reduced emissions, a much expanded network of protected areas, or efforts to increase species movement may be necessary.

ABSTRACT: The Thornthwaite moisture index is a useful indicator of the supply of water (precipitation) in an area relative to the demand for water under prevailing climatic conditions (potential evapotranspiration). This study examines the effects of changes in climate (temperature and precipitation) on the Thornthwaite moisture index in the conterminous United States. Estimates of changes in mean annual temperature and precipitation for doubled-atmospheric CO 2 conditions derived from three general circulation models (GCMs) are used to study the response of the moisture index under steady-state doubled-CO 2 conditions. Results indicate that temperature and precipitation changes under doubled-CO 2 conditions generally will cause the Thornthwaite moisture index to decrease, implying a drier climate for most of the United States. The pattern of expected decrease is consistent among the three GCMs, although the amount of decrease depends on which GCM climatic-change scenario is used. Results also suggest that changes in the moisture index are related mainly to changes in the mean annual potential evapotranspiration as a result of changes in the mean annual temperature, rather than to changes in the mean annual precipitation.

Palaeoecological insights have had only a limited impact on modern ecological thinking, and tend to be used in an unsophisticated manner. Recent successes in correlating tree diversity with contemporary climate and, in particular, energy, have led to claims that explanations for tree diversity based on historical processes or events are superfluous. However, diversity-energy correlations are strong only at regional scales, and fail to predict diversity at small plots within latitudinal bands, or between continents. Moreover, tree diversity cannot have responded to global glacial-interglacial energy fluctuations because plant species cannot evolve that rapidly nor, in most areas of the world, can migration plausibly adjust regional floral diversity. Thus contemporary climate or energy, while yielding excellent correlations with plant diversity, has no explanatory power. Palaeoecological studies show that cycles of forest migration, fragmentation, reduction, and re-expansion are forced by glacial-interglacial climate cycles at high to mid latitudes. These in turn reduce opportunities for habitat specialization, rapidly eliminate species that remain rare throughout a glacial-interglacial cycle, and promote genetic continuity between populations. The result is increasingly impoverished regional floras with increasing latitude, and hence the latitudinal tree species gradient. Contemporary climate regimes act as a surrogate for the sum total of past climatic states and their effects on diversity, and hence the strong regional climate correlations with tree diversity.

Raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) is a deciduous plant with perennial roots, 75% of which are concentrated in the upper level of the soil. Its shallow rooting system requires a regular water supply; a water deficit can affect fructification as well as cane growth and yield for the following season. Despite the demonstrated drought stress impact on the raspberry, there is little information about the phenological and physiological responses to drought stress. The main goal of this study was to evaluate the effects of drought stress on the phenological phases, physiological parameters and yield of two raspberry cultivars: Heritage (remontant type) and Meeker (non-remontant type). All plants were grown in pots under greenhouse conditions, and the following watering treatments were applied: (T1) well-watered, 100% irrigation and (T2) a controlled drought-stress cycle. The volumetric soil water content (θ), phenological phases, leaf net photosynthetic rate (A), transpiration rate (T), and stomatal conductance (gs) were registered periodically. The free proline and total soluble sugars were also determined. Based on the phenological study, Heritage under drought-stress (T2) showed earlier flowering and a shorter fruit production period in relation to well-watered plants (T1). In Meeker, T2 extended the cane and summer lateral elongation, showing earlier senescence. Leaf gas exchange decreased with drought stress, A declined after 28-day period under drought stress, from 9.2μmolCO2m612s611 to 3.0μmolCO2m612s611 in Heritage, and from 12.2μmolCO2m612s611 to 3.0μmolCO2m612s611 in Meeker. In both cultivars, the free proline and total soluble sugars increased with drought stress. The fruit production was also affected in the next season under T2 condition, decreasing in 34 and 38% in relation to well-watered plants.

and we have often had to depend on best-judgement estimates by over 100 scientists with abundant experience in the countries concerned. In a few instances, we have had to accept a simple summation of country-by-country totals, which surely under- estimates regional totals. To this extent, many of the endemism estimates are distinctly conservative.A second determinant of hotspot status, applied only after an area has met the `plants' criterion, is the degree of threat through habitat loss. To qualify, a hotspot should have lost 70% or more of its primary vegetation, this being the form of habitat that usually contains the most species, especially endemics. Eleven hotspots have already lost at least 90% and three have lost 95%. The 70% cutoff is justi(R)ed on the grounds that most large-scale concentrations of endemic plant species occur within the 25 hotspots as delineated. Other concentrations of plant endemics with perhaps another 15% of the Earth's plant species occur in three regions designated as `major tropical forest wilderness areas', each retaining 75% of its primary vegetation (see below). There are few other areas with comparable concentrations. Moreover, were the 70% cutoff to be replaced with 60%, this would admit hardly any other hotspots, whereas a 90% cutoff would exclude 11 of the hotspots.Finally, the analysis is limited to the terrestrial realm (Conserva- tion International is preparing an analysis of marine species and conservation priorities).The area-by-area (R)ndings are presented in Tables 1卤6 and Fig. 1. For further information regarding the sources of our statistics, see the list of references and experts in Supplementary Information.There is variability in the precision and accuracy of data. This is to be expected given the range of areas and the degree of documenta- tion available. In many instances, the statistical information is considered to be accurate to within 5%. In most others, it is suf(R)ciently accurate to rank as sound support for working esti- mates. For example, the Tropical Andes is believed to contain at least 20,000 known plant endemics, this being a rounded (R)gure (many more species, probably thousands, remain to be discovered there). Another 14 such totals are rounded. The Cape Floristic Province, by contrast, is considered to contain exactly 5,682 known plant endemics; the same precision applies to another nine hotspots. Similar considerations apply to vertebrate data and to estimates of remaining primary vegetation.

The influence of dispersal limitation on species ranges remains controversial. Considering the dramatic impacts of the last glaciation in Europe, species might not have tracked climate changes through time and, as a consequence, their present-day ranges might be in disequilibrium with current climate. For 1016 European plant species, we assessed the relative importance of current climate and limited postglacial migration in determining species ranges using regression modelling and explanatory variables representing climate, and a novel species-specific hind-casting-based measure of accessibility to postglacial colonization. Climate was important for all species, while postglacial colonization also constrained the ranges of more than 50 per cent of the species. On average, climate explained five times more variation in species ranges than accessibility, but accessibility was the strongest determinant for one-sixth of the species. Accessibility was particularly important for species with limited long-distance dispersal ability, with southern glacial ranges, seed plants compared with ferns, and small-range species in southern Europe. In addition, accessibility explained one-third of the variation in species' disequilibrium with climate as measured by the realized/potential range size ratio computed with niche modelling. In conclusion, we show that although climate is the dominant broad-scale determinant of European plant species ranges, constrained dispersal plays an important supplementary role.

The distribution of southern Africa's woody flora (N=1372 species) describes a best-to-east pattern of increasing species richness, being lowest in arid to semiarid areas and highest in mesic to humid areas. Climate accounts for 77.8% (R2; P<0.0001) of the variation: species richness is greatest where the amount and duration of energy is optimized (not too much, not too little) and moisture maximized, and decreases as the amount or duration of energy moves above or below optimal conditions, or as moisture decreases. Given the perpetual and necessary relationship between climate and plant photosynthesis, climate provides a first-order, albeit partial, explanation for the persistence of pattern (especially latitudinal and elevational gradients) in the distribution of woody plant species richness over space and time.

A phylogeny of the tribe Neillieae (Rosaceae), which comprises Neillia, Stephanandra, and Physocarpus, was reconstructed based on nucleotide sequences of several regions of cpDNA, the ITS and ETS regions of rDNA, and the second intron of LEAFY, to elucidate relationships among genera and species in Neillieae and to assess the historical biogeography of the tribe. Phylogenetic analyses indicated that Physocarpus and Neillia-Stephanandra were strongly supported as monophyletic and suggested that Stephanandra may have originated by hybridization between two lineages of Neillia. Dispersal-vicariance analyses suggested that the most recent common ancestor of Neillieae may have occupied eastern Asia and western North America and that Physocarpus and Neillia-Stephanandra may have been split by an intercontinental vicariance event in the early Miocene. The biogeographic analyses also suggested that species of Neillia and Stephanandra diversified in eastern Asia, whereas in Physocarpus one dispersal event from western North America to eastern Asia occurred. Two divergent types of LEAFY sequences were found in the eastern North American species, P. opulifolius, but only one type was present in each plant. The two types of sequences may represent homeologous genes that originated by hybridization between P. capitatus and P. monogynus, both western North American species.

Abstract Biodiversity hotspots have a prominent role in conservation biology, but it remains controversial to what extent different types of hotspot are congruent. Previous studies were unable to provide a general answer because they used a single biodiversity index, were geographically restricted, compared areas of unequal size or did not quantitatively compare hotspot types. Here we use a new global database on the breeding distribution of all known extant bird species to test for congruence across three types of hotspot. We demonstrate that hotspots of species richness, threat and endemism do not show the same geographical distribution. Only 2.5% of hotspot areas are common to all three aspects of diversity, with over 80% of hotspots being idiosyncratic. More generally, there is a surprisingly low overall congruence of biodiversity indices, with any one index explaining less than 24% of variation in the other indices. These results suggest that, even within a single taxonomic class, different mechanisms are responsible for the origin and maintenance of different aspects of diversity. Consequently, the different types of hotspots also vary greatly in their utility as conservation tools.

The complex relationship between species richness and area can be simplified by decomposing spatial scale into its components: grain, extent, and number of samples. We designed a 256 x 256-m study grid in the Oosting Natural Area in the Duke Forest, Orange County, North Carolina, such that the effects of these components can be disentangled. We found that grain, extent, and the number of samples all influenced the species-area relationship, although the effects of grain were dominant. We also found that species richness patterns were neither self-similar nor hierarchical. The degree to which diversity occurs in "hot spots" increases as a function of both grain and extent, but diversity hot spots tend to persist across a wide range of grains.

50 km to each observation, then the aggregate of all circular areas was calculated for each species. All of them were done by using of Map Info Software. When the circular neighborhood option is chosen for analysis/point-to-grid/main, calculations are made based not on the observations within each grid cells, but rather on the observation found within a circle with its center in the middle of each grid cells and on the specified radius (Bonham-Carter 1994, Cressie 1991, Hatami & Khosravi 2013).The CA50 statistic was plotted against the number of observations to explore differences in abundance between species. A species with a relatively high number of observations per CA50 would be abundant within its area of distribution, whereas a low number would indicate that a species was more scattered over the range in which it occurs (Hijmans & Spooner 2001, Mousavi & Khosravi 2010).To investigate more aspects of species and endemics distribution area, the smallest area (the number of grid cells) determined that is needed to

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Most rosaceous tree fruit have long juvenility and large plant sizes, which makes traditional seedling selection (TSS), relying on phenotypic evaluation alone, relatively time-consuming and expensive.

Tibetan land use near Khawa Karpo, Northwest Yunnan, China, incorporates indigenous forest management, gathering, pastoralism, and agriculture. With field-based GIS, repeat photography, and Participatory Rural Appraisal we quantitatively compare land use between higher and lower villages, and between villages with and without roads. Households in higher elevation (>3,000 meters) villages cultivate more farmland (z = -5.387, P 0.001), a greater diversity of major crops (z = -5.760, P < 0.001), a higher percentage of traditional crops, and fewer cash crops (z = -2.430, P = 0.015) than those in lower elevation villages (<2,500 meters). Villages with roads grow significantly more cash crops (z = -6.794, P 0.001). Both lower villages and villages with roads travel farther to access common property resources. Historical analyses indicate agricultural intensification in valleys, an increase in houses, new crop introduction, hillside aforestation, cessation of hunting, glacial retreat, and timberline advance within the past century. We suggest that Tibetan land use reveals trade-offs between high, remote villages and lower villages near roads. Higher villages offer abundant land and access to natural resources but short growing seasons and little market access; in contrast, lower villages have road and market access, an extended growing season, and modern technology, but limited access to land and many other natural resources.

QuestionsHow are plant species distribution patterns in tropical montane forest linked to altitude, regional climate and geographic location? Which climatic variables are most important in explaining variations in floristic diversity? What are potential effects of climate change on species diversity?LocationEthiopia.MethodsVegetation surveys were conducted in 180 study plots distributed across five moist montane forest areas in southwest and southeast Ethiopia (1000 2300 m a.s.l.). Temperature and precipitation data, as well as bioclimatic variables, were derived for each study plot from the WorldClim global climate data set. Species and climate data were analysed with direct and indirect ordination techniques and multivariate regression trees (MRT).ResultsEach of the sampled forest areas showed a distinct species composition and was governed by a particular regional temperature and precipitation pattern related to the topographic variability of the Ethiopian highlands. Hence, a general altitudinal cut-off level for different forest types applicable in all five moist montane forest areas could not be identified. The most important bioclimatic variable in determining species distribution patterns was the amount of precipitation after the dry season (i.e. precipitation in the warmest quarter), followed by minimum temperature in the coldest month. At a lower hierarchical level, temperature and precipitation seasonality were also identified as significant discriminating variables. Generally, in areas with high precipitation during the warmest quarter ( 288 mm) and low minimum temperature in the coldest month (<10.9 C), the number of Afromontane species was highest and that of Guineo ongolian species lowest.ConclusionsThe altitudinal effect on species diversity in the Ethiopian moist montane forests is strongly modified by regional differences in precipitation and temperature regime. The predicted increase in temperature for the Ethiopian highlands due to climate change is likely to affect the distribution of the endemic Afromontane species. Furthermore, the study highlights the need for systematic on-the-ground measurements of climate variables in tropical montane areas in order to understand the current climate regime and as a basis for modelling future changes.

Abstract A deficiene ofwaterundernatural anidevelu cultural conditions is probably responsible forthepoorgrowthanddeathofmoreplants than diseases, insects, oranyother cause.Although itispossible toseewiththe niaked eyehowandwhena plantresponds tolowwatersupply, itisof interest toknowtheextent towhichadrying soil affects metabolic processes before andduring thetimewilting isvisible. Itisofinterest alsotoknow whether awilted plant recovers immediately inleafactivity whenwaterhas beensupplied tothesoil, orifnormalactivity isdelayed orneveragaini at- taiined. Theresults presented inthispapertracethedailyeffect ofa gradually drying soil onapparent photosynthesis, respiration, andtranspira- tionofsmallappletrees asthesoil inwhichtheyweregrowinggradually dried toapproximately thewilting pereentage, after whichitwaswatered tofield capacity. Methods ENVIRONMENT-CONTROL

The classification of the economically important genus Prunus L. sensu lato (s.l.) is controversial due to the high levels of convergent or the parallel evolution of morphological characters. In the present study, phylogenetic analyses of fifteen main segregates of Prunus s.l. represented by eighty-four species were conducted with maximum parsimony and Bayesian approaches using twelve chloroplast regions (atpB-rbcL, matK, ndhF, psbA-trnH, rbcL, rpL16, rpoC1, rps16, trnS-G, trnL, trnL-F and ycf1) and three nuclear genes (ITS, s6pdh and SbeI) to explore their infrageneric relationships. The results of these analyses were used to develop a new, phylogeny-based classification of Prunus s.l. Our phylogenetic reconstructions resolved three main clades of Prunus s.l. with strong supports. We adopted a broad-sensed genus, Prunus, and recognised three subgenera corresponding to the three main clades: subgenus Padus, subgenus Cerasus and subgenus Prunus. Seven sections of subgenus Prunus were recognised. The dwarf cherries, which were previously assigned to subgenus Cerasus, were included in this subgenus Prunus. One new section name, Prunus L. subgenus Prunus section Persicae (T. T. Y & L. T. Lu) S. L. Zhou and one new species name, Prunus tianshanica (Pojarkov) S. Shi, were proposed.

Abstract Aim Is high diversity in tropical and subtropical mountains due to topographical complexity alone or a combination of topography and temperature seasonality? Here, we aim to assess the contribution of these two factors on Rhododendron diversity in China. Specifically, we evaluate how low temperature seasonality in subtropical China jointly with heterogeneous environment accounts for increased species diversity across montane landscapes relative to those of the more seasonal temperate zone in north China. Location China. Methods We compiled distributional data for all Rhododendron species in China and then estimated the species richness patterns of rare versus common species, and of shrubs versus trees at spatial resolutions of 50 50km. Bivariate regressions were performed to evaluate the effects of environmental variables on species richness followed by stepwise regression to select the best set of predictors. Results The variables of habitat heterogeneity and climate seasonality were consistently the strongest predictors of species richness for all species groups, while the contribution of water and energy variables was proportionately much lower. Winter coldness had very low predictive power, which indicated that unlike other woody plants, the northward dispersal of Rhododendron is not limited by cold winter temperature. Main conclusions High Rhododendron diversity in south-west China appears to be influenced jointly by the climatic gradients induced by topographical complexity and temperature seasonality as suggested by Janzen's hypothesis. The increased topographical complexity in combination with low temperature seasonality in south-west China might have promoted species accumulation by offering more niche space, preventing extinction and providing increased opportunities for allopatric speciation. While our findings strongly indicate the effect of habitat heterogeneity on species diversity, they also suggest the role of seasonal uniformity of temperature for increased diversity towards the tropics. The effect of seasonality may, however, be more pronounced in plants because of their limited ability to use behaviour to avoid environmental influences.

AbstractEnvironmental heterogeneity is regarded as one of the most important factors governing species richness gradients. An increase in available niche space, provision of refuges and opportunities for isolation and divergent adaptation are thought to enhance species coexistence, persistence and diversification. However, the extent and generality of positive heterogeneity–richness relationships are still debated. Apart from widespread evidence supporting positive relationships, negative and hump-shaped relationships have also been reported. In a meta-analysis of 1148 data points from 192 studies worldwide, we examine the strength and direction of the relationship between spatial environmental heterogeneity and species richness of terrestrial plants and animals. We find that separate effects of heterogeneity in land cover, vegetation, climate, soil and topography are significantly positive, with vegetation and topographic heterogeneity showing particularly strong associations with species richness. The use of equal-area study units, spatial grain and spatial extent emerge as key factors influencing the strength of heterogeneity–richness relationships, highlighting the pervasive influence of spatial scale in heterogeneity–richness studies. We provide the first quantitative support for the generality of positive heterogeneity–richness relationships across heterogeneity components, habitat types, taxa and spatial scales from landscape to global extents, and identify specific needs for future comparative heterogeneity–richness research.

ABSTRACT Aim68 This study uses a high-resolution simulation of the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) climate to assess: (1) whether LGM climate still affects the geographical species richness patterns in the European tree flora and (2) the relative importance of modern and LGM climate as controls of tree species richness in Europe. Location68 The parts of Europe that were unglaciated during the LGM. Methods68 Atlas data on the distributions of 55 tree species were linked with data on modern and LGM climate and climatic heterogeneity in a geographical information system with a 60-km grid. Four measures of species richness were computed: total richness, and richness of the 18 most restricted species, 19 species of medium incidence (intermediate species) and 18 most widespread species. We used ordinary least-squares regression and spatial autoregressive modelling to test and estimate the richness–climate relationships. Results68 LGM climate constituted the best single set of explanatory variables for richness of restricted species, while modern climate and climatic heterogeneity was best for total and widespread species richness and richness of intermediate species, respectively. The autoregressive model with all climatic predictors was supported for all richness measures using an information-theoretic approach, albeit only weakly so for total species richness. Among the strongest relationships were increases in total and intermediate richness with climatic heterogeneity and in restricted richness with LGM growing-degree-days. Partial regression showed that climatic heterogeneity accounted for the largest unique variation fraction for intermediate richness, while LGM climate was particularly important for restricted richness. Main conclusions68 LGM climate appears to still affect geographical patterns of tree species richness in Europe, albeit the relative importance of modern and LGM climate depends on range size. Notably, LGM climate is a strong richness control for species with a restricted range, which appear to still be associated with their glacial refugia.

The relative importance of contemporary climate and history as controls of geographical diversity patterns is intensely debated. A key example is the controversy over the extent to which temperate tree distributions and diversity patterns reflect postglacial dispersal limitation. Here, we focus on Central and Northern Europe, and show that recent estimates of tree migration rates < 100 m year 1 imply that many species have probably not reached equilibrium with climate in this region. We then demonstrate that geographical accessibility from glacial refuges explains 78% of the geographical variation in the region's tree diversity and is a much stronger diversity predictor than climate. Finally, we show that realistic estimates of migration rates can be derived from the observed tree diversity pattern by assuming it to be purely dispersal driven. In conclusion, the tree diversity pattern in Central and Northern Europe could, to a large extent, be a result of postglacial dispersal limitation.

Analyzing how climate change affects vegetation distribution is one of the central issues of global change ecology as this has important implications for the carbon budget of terrestrial vegetation. Mapping vegetation distribution under historical climate scenarios is essential for understanding the response of vegetation distribution to future climatic changes. The reconstructions of palaeovegetation based on pollen data provide a useful method to understand the relationship between climate and vegetation distribution. However, this method is limited in time and space. Here, using species distribution model (SDM) approaches, we explored the climatic determinants of contemporary vegetation distribution and reconstructed the distribution of Chinese vegetation during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM, 18,00014C yr BP) and Middle-Holocene (MH, 600014C yr BP). The dynamics of vegetation distribution since the LGM reconstructed by SDMs were largely consistent with those based on pollen data, suggesting that the SDM approach is a useful tool for studying historical vegetation dynamics and its response to climate change across time and space. Comparison between the modeled contemporary potential natural vegetation distribution and the observed contemporary distribution suggests that temperate deciduous forests, subtropical evergreen broadleaf forests, temperate deciduous shrublands and temperate steppe have low range fillings and are strongly influenced by human activities. In general, the Tibetan Plateau, North and Northeast China, and the areas near the 30 N in Central and Southeast China appeared to have experienced the highest turnover in vegetation due to climate change from the LGM to the present.

What determines large-scale patterns of species richness remains one of the most controversial issues in ecology. Using the distribution maps of 11 405 woody species in China, we compared the effects of habitat heterogeneity, human activities and different aspects of climate, particularly environmental energy, waterenergy dynamics and winter frost, and explored how biogeographic affinities (tropical versus temperate) influence richness-climate relationships. We found that the species richness of trees, shrubs, lianas and all woody plants strongly correlated with each other, and more strongly correlated with the species richness of tropical affinity than with that of temperate affinity. The mean temperature of the coldest quarter was the strongest predictor of species richness, and its explanatory power for species richness was significantly higher for tropical affinity than for temperate affinity. These results suggest that the patterns of woody species richness mainly result from the increasing intensity of frost filtering for tropical species from the equator/lowlands towards the poles/highlands, and hence support the freezing-tolerance hypothesis. A model based on these results was developed, which explained 76-85% of species richness variation in China, and reasonably predicted the species richness of woody plants in North America and the Northern Hemisphere.

What determines large-scale patterns of species diversity is a central and controversial topic in biogeography and ecology. In this study, we compared the effects of contemporary environment and historical contingencies on species richness patterns of woody plants in China, using fine-resolution geographic databases of the distributions of 11 405 woody species and climate, topography, and vegetation information. Residuals of species richness-environment generalized linear models were significantly different from 0 in the majority of seven biogeographical regions, and also differed significantly between these regions, indicating significant deviation from the predicted species richness based on contemporary environment. Additionally, species richness of a given biogeographical region deviated substantially from the predictions of species richness-environment models developed for the remaining regions combined. This suggests different richness-environment relationships among regions. These results indicate important historical signals in the species richness patterns of woody plants across China. The signals are especially pronounced in the eastern Himalayas, the Mongolian Plateau, and the Tibetan Plateau, perhaps reflecting their special geological features and history. Nevertheless, partial regression indicated that historical effects were less important relative to contemporary environment. In conclusion, contemporary environment (notably climate) determines the general trend in woody-plant species richness across China, while historical contingencies generate regional deviations from this trend. Our findings imply that both species diversity and regional evolutionary and ecological histories should be taken into account for future nature conservation.

Beta diversity (i.e. species turnover rate across space) is fundamental for understanding mechanisms controlling large-scale species richness patterns. However, the influences on beta diversity are still a matter of debate. In particular, the relative role of environmental and spatial processes (e.g. environmental niche versus dispersal limitation of species) remains elusive, and the influence of species range size has been poorly tested. Here, using distribution maps of 11 405 woody species in China (ca 9.6 106 km2), we investigated 1) the geographical and directional patterns of beta diversity for all woody species and species with different range sizes, and 2) compared the effects of environmental and spatial processes on these patterns. Beta diversity was calculated as the decay of similarity in species composition with increasing distance. Variables representing environmental energy, water availability, climatic seasonality, habitat heterogeneity and human activities were used to evaluate the effects of environmental processes, while spatial distance was used to assess the influence of spatial processes. The results indicated significant directional patterns of beta diversity: the similarity decay along the latitudinal gradient was 1.6 2.3 times faster than that along the longitudinal gradient. Beta diversity also increased with the decrease of species range size. As compared with spatial processes, environmental processes had stronger effects on longitudinal beta diversity and on the beta diversity of widely-ranged species. This was opposite to the larger influence of spatial processes on latitudinal beta diversity and the beta diversity of narrowly-ranged species. These results suggest that the distributions of narrowly-ranged woody species in China may have not reached equilibrium with their environmental niches due to dispersal limitation induced by China's topography and/or their low dispersal ability. The projected rapid climatic changes will likely endanger such species. Species dispersal processes should be taken into account in future conservation strategies in China.

物种多样性地理分布格局及其成因是生物地理学和宏观生态学研究的核心问题之一。为了解释物种多样性的分布格局,人们提出了多种假说,其中讨论最多的是能量假说。该假说认为,物种多样性的变化受能量控制。根据能量的不同形式及其对物种多样性的影响机制,能量假说包括以下几种形式:生产力假说(productivity hypothesis)、水分—能量动态假说(water-energy dynamic hypothesis)、环境能量假说(ambientenergy hypothesis)、寒冷忍耐假说(freezing tolerance hypothesis)以及生态学代谢假说(metabolic theory of ecology,MTE)。本文系统介绍了每种能量假说的含义、所使用的能量形式及表征变量,以及对物种多样性的影响机制,并对不同形式的能量假说进行了比较,在此基础上,分析了每种能量假说的优点和缺点以及各自面临的问题。

物种多样性地理分布格局及其成因是生物地理学和宏观生态学研究的核心问题之一。为了解释物种多样性的分布格局,人们提出了多种假说,其中讨论最多的是能量假说。该假说认为,物种多样性的变化受能量控制。根据能量的不同形式及其对物种多样性的影响机制,能量假说包括以下几种形式:生产力假说(productivity hypothesis)、水分—能量动态假说(water-energy dynamic hypothesis)、环境能量假说(ambientenergy hypothesis)、寒冷忍耐假说(freezing tolerance hypothesis)以及生态学代谢假说(metabolic theory of ecology,MTE)。本文系统介绍了每种能量假说的含义、所使用的能量形式及表征变量,以及对物种多样性的影响机制,并对不同形式的能量假说进行了比较,在此基础上,分析了每种能量假说的优点和缺点以及各自面临的问题。

An earth system model (MIROC-ESM 2010) is fully described in terms of each model component and their interactions. Results for the CMIP5 (Coupled Model Intercomparison Project phase 5) historical simulation are presented to demonstrate the model's performance from several perspectives: atmosphere, ocean, sea-ice, land-surface, ocean and terrestrial biogeochemistry, and atmospheric chemistry and aerosols. An atmospheric chemistry coupled version of MIROC-ESM (MIROC-ESM-CHEM 2010) reasonably reproduces transient variations in surface air temperatures for the period 1850???2005, as well as the present-day climatology for the zonal-mean zonal winds and temperatures from the surface to the mesosphere. The historical evolution and global distribution of column ozone and the amount of tropospheric aerosols are reasonably simulated in the model based on the Representative Concentration Pathways' (RCP) historical emissions of these precursors. The simulated distributions of the terrestrial and marine biogeochemistry parameters agree with recent observations, which is encouraging to use the model for future global change projections.

The hypothesis that greater safety from cavitation by air-seeding through inter-vessel pits comes at the cost of less porous pit membranes with greater flow resistance was tested . Sixteen vessel-bearing species were compared: 11 from the Rosaceae, four from other angiosperm families, and one fern. Unexpectedly, there was no relationship between pit resistance (and hence the prevailing membrane porosity) and cavitation pressure. There was, however, an inverse relationship between pit area per vessel and vulnerability to cavitation ( r 2 = 0.75). This suggests that cavitation is caused by the rare largest membrane pore per vessel, the average size of which increases with total pit area per vessel. If safety from cavitation constrains pit membrane surface area, it also limits vessel surface area and the minimum vessel resistivity. This trade-off was consistent with an approximately three-fold increase in vessel resistivity with cavitation pressure dropping from 610.8 to 616.6 MPa. The trade-off was compensated for by a reduction in the percentage of vessel wall pitted: from 10–16% in vulnerable species to 2–4% in resistant species. Across species, end-wall pitting accounted for 53 ± 3% of the total xylem resistivity. This corresponded to vessels achieving on average 94 ± 2% of their maximum possible conductivity if vessel surface area is constrained.

Aims We present an analysis of grid-based species-richness data for European plants, mammals, birds, amphibians and reptiles, designed to test the proposition of Hawkins et al. (2003a ) that the single best factor describing richness variation switches from the water regime to the energy regime in the mid-latitudes and that the 'breakpoint' is related to the physiological character of the taxa. We go on to develop subregional models showing the extent to which regional model fits vary as a function of the extent of the study system, and compare the relative performance of 'water', 'energy' and 'water–energy' models of richness for southern, northern and pan-European models. Location Western Europe. Methods We use atlas data comprising species range data for 187 species of mammals, 445 species of breeding birds, 58 amphibians, 91 reptiles and 2362 plant species, inserted into a c. 50 × 50 km grid cell system. We used 11 modelled climate variables, averaged for the period 1961–90. Statistical analyses were carried out using generalized additive models (GAMs), with splines simplified to a maximum of four degrees of freedom, and we tested for spatial autocorrelation using Moran's I values obtained at 10 different distance intervals. We selected favoured models on the grounds of deviance explained combined with a simple parsimony criterion, such that we selected either: (1) the best two-variable energy, water or water–energy model, or (2) a four-variable water–energy model, where the latter improved on the best two-variable model by a minimum of 5% deviance explained. Results Threshold energy values, at which richness shows a transition from an increasing to a decreasing function of annual solar radiation, were identified for all taxa apart from reptiles. We found conditional support for the switch from dominance of water variables (southern models) to energy variables (northern models). Our favoured models switched between 'water' and 'energy' for mammals, and between 'energy' and 'water–energy' for birds, depending on whether we used data of pan-European extent, southern or northern subsets. Deviance explained in our favoured models varied from 15% (birds, southern Europe) to 72% (amphibians, northern Europe), i.e. ranging from very poor to good fits with the data. Comparison with previous work indicates that our models are generally consistent with (if sometimes weaker than) previous findings. Main conclusions Our models are incomplete representations of factors influencing macro-scale richness patterns across Europe, taking no explicit account of, for example, topographic variation, human influences or long-term climatic variation. However, with the exception of birds, for which only the northern model attains over one-third deviance explained, the models show that climate can account for meaningful proportions of the deviance. We find general support for considering water and energy regimes together in modelling species richness, and for the proposition that water is more limiting in southern Europe and energy in the north. Our analyses demonstrate the sensitivity of model outcomes to the geographical location and extent of the study system, illustrating that simple curve-fitting exercises like these, particularly if based on regions with the complex history and geography characteristic of Europe, are unlikely to provide the basis for global, predictive models. However, such exercises may be of value in detecting which aspects of water and energy regimes may be of most importance in refining independently generated global models for regional application.

Ecology and historical (phylogeny-based) biogeography have much to offer one another, but exchanges between these fields have been limited. Historical biogeography has become narrowly focused on using phylogenies to discover the history of geological connections among regions. Conversely, ecologists often ignore historical biogeography, even when its input can be crucial. Both historical biogeographers and ecologists have more-or-less abandoned attempts to understand the processes that determine the large-scale distribution of clades. Here, we describe the chasm that has developed between ecology and historical biogeography, some of the important questions that have fallen into it and how it might be bridged. To illustrate the benefits of an integrated approach, we expand on a model that can help explain the latitudinal gradient of species richness.

Abstract A common hypothesis for the rich biodiversity found in mountains is uplift-driven diversification-that orogeny creates conditions favoring rapid in situ speciation of resident lineages. We tested this hypothesis in the context of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau (QTP) and adjoining mountain ranges, using the phylogenetic and geographic histories of multiple groups of plants to infer the tempo (rate) and mode (colonization versus in situ diversification) of biotic assembly through time and across regions. We focused on the Hengduan Mountains region, which in comparison with the QTP and Himalayas was uplifted more recently (since the late Miocene) and is smaller in area and richer in species. Time-calibrated phylogenetic analyses show that about 8 million y ago the rate of in situ diversification increased in the Hengduan Mountains, significantly exceeding that in the geologically older QTP and Himalayas. By contrast, in the QTP and Himalayas during the same period the rate of in situ diversification remained relatively flat, with colonization dominating lineage accumulation. The Hengduan Mountains flora was thus assembled disproportionately by recent in situ diversification, temporally congruent with independent estimates of orogeny. This study shows quantitative evidence for uplift-driven diversification in this region, and more generally, tests the hypothesis by comparing the rate and mode of biotic assembly jointly across time and space. It thus complements the more prevalent method of examining endemic radiations individually and could be used as a template to augment such studies in other biodiversity hotspots.

AimWater–energy dynamics are often correlated with geographical patterns of terrestrial plant richness. However, the relative importance of water and energy on species richness is still being debated. Some studies suggest a transition in the relative importance of water and energy along a latitudinal gradient, i.e. that water is the most important factor at low latitudes, whereas energy is the leading factor at high latitudes. The generality of this transition is yet to be established and is the focus of the current study. In particular, we examine whether differences in the evolutionary histories of two subgenera of Asian oaks influence the derived models of water–energy dynamics.LocationAsia (70–140° E; 10–60° N).MethodsWe performed geographically weighted regressions to quantify geographical variation in the relative importance of water and energy on the species richness of Asian oaks (Quercus L.). We also evaluated how evolutionary history influences the relative importance of water and energy in determining species richness, by comparing patterns in the two oak subgenera: Quercus subg. Quercus and Quercus subg. Cyclobalanopsis. In particular, we assessed how the ancestral climatic niche of these two subgenera (i.e. subgenus Quercus of temperate origin versus subgenus Cyclobalanopsis of tropical origin) relates to the relative importance of water and energy on contemporary diversity patterns.ResultsWe found no geographical transition line in the relative importance of water and energy along the latitudinal gradient studied. Instead, we found that the importance of energy relative to water on the species richness of subgenus Quercus increased from mid-latitudes (warm temperate regions) towards both tropical and boreal regions: this pattern might reflect that this subgenus originated in the temperate region. In contrast, the importance of both water and energy on the species richness of the tropical subgenus Cyclobalanopsis increased from tropical to boreal regions, probably due to a lack of adaptation to winter coldness.Main conclusionsOur results suggest that differences in the evolutionary history – specifically the ancestral climatic niche – of the two subgenera of oaks influence the effects of water–energy dynamics on species richness along a latitudinal gradient through niche conservatism.

Abstract AimThe water–energy dynamics hypothesis posits that species diversity is correlated with water availability and temperatures; diversity is lowest when water availability is reduced at low temperatures because few species can persist under such conditions. However, the relationship between water and energy availability and diversity likely varies geographically along environmental gradients. Here, we examined the drivers of such variability, using a global-scale data set on oaks. LocationGlobal. MethodTo quantify spatial variation in both species diversity–water relationships and species diversity–energy relationships, we performed geographically weighted regressions (GWR) of (1) species diversity against energy availability, measured as potential evapotranspiration and temperature, and (2) species diversity against water availability, measured by precipitation and an aridity index. We then regressed the local slopes of these GWR models against water and energy separately, and water02×02energy combined to assess whether the regional-scale relationships among oak diversity, water and energy depended on climatic conditions at larger spatial extents. ResultsWe found that the effects of low water availability and cold temperatures on oak diversity varied geographically. In particular, the effects of water and energy availability on oak diversity increased as water and energy availability decreased. Furthermore, the interaction between water and energy availability influenced regional-scale oak diversity–energy relationships but not oak diversity–water relationships. Main conclusionOur results suggest that the relationship between climate (and potentially climatic change) and oak diversity varies geographically, and that the effects of limiting water and temperature are likely to be most severe in arid environments.

Abstract Phylogenetic relationships in Rosaceae have long been problematic because of frequent hybridisation, apomixis and presumed rapid radiation, and their historical diversification has not been clarified. With 87 genera representing all subfamilies and tribes of Rosaceae and six of the other eight families of Rosales (outgroups), we analysed 130 newly sequenced plastomes together with 12 from GenBank in an attempt to reconstruct deep relationships and reveal temporal diversification of this family. Our results highlight the importance of improving sequence alignment and the use of appropriate substitution models in plastid phylogenomics. Three subfamilies and 16 tribes (as previously delimited) were strongly supported as monophyletic, and their relationships were fully resolved and strongly supported at most nodes. Rosaceae were estimated to have originated during the Late Cretaceous with evidence for rapid diversification events during several geological periods. The major lineages rapidly diversified in warm and wet habits during the Late Cretaceous, and the rapid diversification of genera from the early Oligocene onwards occurred in colder and drier environments. Plastid phylogenomics offers new and important insights into deep phylogenetic relationships and the diversification history of Rosaceae. The robust phylogenetic backbone and time estimates we provide establish a framework for future comparative studies on rosaceous evolution.

China is very rich in biodiversity, however, it is also characterized by a long history of civilization. As a result, China has a large number of threatened species. Recently the Chinese government evaluated the living status of plants, and published the China Biodiversity Red List: Higher Plants. However, little is known about how threatened plants are distributed and conserved in China. In this study, we developed a fine resolution distribution database for 3244 threatened plants, explored richness patterns and evaluated the in situ conservation status of the threatened plants by overlapping the species distribution with terrestrial national and provincial nature reserves (NNRs and PNRs) in China. We found the greatest richness of threatened plants in the southwestern region of mainland China (mainly Yunnan, southeastern Xizang and western Sichuan), northwestern Guangxi, northern Guangdong, Hainan Island and the mountainous region of Taiwan, while the lowest richness was found in Qinghai, Hebei, Shandong, Jiangsu and Chongqing Provinces. On average, NNRs covered 18.8%, and NNRs and PNRs together covered 27.5%, of threatened plant distribution areas. However, 827 threatened plants (including 627 species endemic to China) were not covered by NNRs and 397 threatened plants (including 293 endemic to China) were not covered by either NNRs or PNRs. We proposed that nature reserves specifically designed for threatened plants need to be established in South China, especially in the Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Xinjiang Hainan, and Zhejiang Provinces.

The rising of the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau has character of multistage (45-38 Ma, 25-17 Ma, 13-8 Ma, 3 Ma-present), inhomogeneity and hetero-speed. The whole uprising of the plateau and local rapid rising in its periphery since Late Pliocene is a synthetical result of at least two or more mechanisms.