EFFECTS OF OZONE POLLUTION ON TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM PRODUCTIVITY

doi:10.17521/cjpe.2007.0026

Abstract

Abstract:

Air pollution is a key factor that threatens earth's ecosystems and sustainability. Tropospheric ozone continues to be of major concern in the field of air pollution effects on terrestrial ecosystem productivity. In this paper, we have reviewed recent progresses in the studies of ozone effects on terrestrial production processes (including plant photosynthesis, carbon allocation, plant growth and crop yield), nutrient cycling, and species composition. Increased evidence shows that ozone can reduce the capability of photosynthesis by influencing leaf area and stomatal conductance, and alters the pattern of carbon allocation between shoot and root. Previous studies have also shown that elevated ozone could result in a maximum loss of 30% crop yield or forest production. However, little is known about how elevated ozone affects decomposition, nutrient cycling, species composition and trophic dynamics. There is an urgent need to investigate the synergetic effects of ozone pollution and climate change on terrestrial ecosystems. To address such a complex and large-scale environmental problem, spatially-explicit process-based ecosystem models have been used extensively in recent years. To advance our understanding of how air pollution and climate change influence terrestrial ecosystem productivity, further studies are needed to address multifactor experiments in the field and enhance the interaction between field studies and modeling.

Key words: air pollution, ozone, terrestrial ecosystem productivity, ecosystem model

REN Wei, TIAN Han-Qin. EFFECTS OF OZONE POLLUTION ON TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM PRODUCTIVITY[J]. Chin J Plant Ecol, 2007, 31(2): 219-230.

Add to citation manager EndNote|Ris|BibTeX

URL: https://www.plant-ecology.com/EN/10.17521/cjpe.2007.0026

https://www.plant-ecology.com/EN/Y2007/V31/I2/219

Figures/Tables 1

References 130

[1]	Adams DF, Mayhew DJ, Gnagy RM, Richey EP, Koppe RR, Allen LW (1952). Atmospheric pollution in the ponderosa pine blight area. Industrial and Engineering Chemistry Research, 44,1356-1365.
[2]	Adams RM, Glyer DJ, Johnson SL, McCarl BA (1989). A reassessment of the economic effects of ozone on the U.S. agriculture. Journal of Air Pollution Control Association, 39,960-968.
[3]	Adaros G, Weigel HJ, Jager HJ (1991). Concurrent exposure to SO₂ and/or NO₂ alters growth and yield responses of wheat barely to low concentrations of O₃. New Phytologist, 118,581-591.
[4]	Akimoto H (2003). Global air quality and pollution. Science, 302,1716-1719. DOI URL PMID
[5]	Andersen CP, Wilson R, Plocher M, Hogsett WE (1997). Carry-over effects of ozone on root growth and carbohydrate concentrations of ponderosa pine seedlings. Tree Physiology, 17,805-811.
[6]	Arbaugh M, Bytnerowics A, Grulke N, Fenn M, Poth M, Temple P, Miller P (2003). Photochemical smog effects in mixed conifer forests along a natural gradient of ozone and nitrogen deposition in the San Bernadino Mountains. Environment International, 29,401-406. DOI URL PMID
[7]	Ashmore MR (2002). Effects of oxidants at the whole plant and community level. In: Bell JNB, Treshow M eds. Air Pollution and Plant Life 2nd edn. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK, 89-118.
[8]	Aunan K, Berntsen TK, Seip HM (2000). Surface ozone in China and its possible impact on agriculture crop yields. Ambio, 29,294-301.
[9]	Bai YM (白月明), Guo JP (郭建平), Wang CY (王春乙), Wen M (温民) (2002). The reaction and sensitivity experiment of O₃ on rice and winter wheat. Chinese Journal of Eco-Agriculture (中国生态农业学报), 10,13-20. (in Chinese with English abstract)
[10]	Barbo DN, Chappelka AH, Somers GL, Miller-Goodman MS, Stolte K (1998). Diversity of an early successional community as influenced by ozone. New Phytologist, 138,653-662.
[11]	Barnes JD, Wellburn AR (1998). Air pollutant combinations. In: de Kok LJ, Stuhlen I eds. Responses of Plant Metabolism to Air Pollution and Global Change. Backhuys Publishing, Leiden, 147-164.
[12]	Bassin S, Kolliker R, Cretton C, Bertossa M, Widmer F, Bungener P, Fuhrer J (2004). Intra-specific variability in ozone elevated ozone concentrations. Environmental Pollution, 131,1-12. DOI URL PMID
[13]	Bell JNB, Treshow M (2002). Air Pollution and Plant Life 2nd edn. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, UK,44-45.
[14]	Bergin MH, Greenwald W, Xu J, Berta Y, Chameides WL (2001). Influence of aerosol dry deposition on photosynthetically active radiation available to plants: a case study in the Yangtze delta region of China. Geophysical Research Letters, 28,3605-3608.
[15]	Bergin MH, Halthore RS, Schwartz SE, Ogren JA, Nemesure S (2000). Comparison of aerosol column properties based on nephelometer and radiometer measurements at the SGP ARM Site. Journal of Geophysical Research, 105,6807-6816.
[16]	Bergin MH, Schwartz SE, Ogren JA, McInnes LM (1997). Evaporation of ammonium nitrate aerosol in a heated nephelometer: implications for field measurements. Environmental Science & Technology, 31,2878-2883.
[17]	Berntsen TK, Myhre G, Storal F, Isaksen ISA (2000). Time evolution of troposphetion ozone and its radiative forcing. Journal of Geophysical Research, 105,8915-8930.
[18]	Borrell P, Burrows JP, Platt U, Richter A, Wagner T (2003). The complexities of ozone chemistry mean that policy makers are facing many challenges to improve air quality. Atmospheric Environment, 37,25-67.
[19]	Brasseur GP, Kiehl JT, Muller JF, Schneider T, Granier C, Tie X, Hauglustaine D (1998). Past and future changes in global tropospheric ozone: impact on radiative forcing. Geophysical Research Letters, 25,3807-3810.
[20]	Braun S, Fluckiger W (1995). Effects of ambient ozone on seedings of Fagus sylvatica L. and Picea abies (L.) Karst. New Phytologist, 129,33-44.
[21]	Bungener P, Nussbaum S, Grub A, Fuhrer J (1999). Growth responses of grassland species to ozone in relation to soil moisture condition and plant strategy. New Phytologist, 142,283-293.
[22]	Chameides WL, Li X, Tang X, Zhou X, Luo C, Kiang CS, John J St., Saylor RD, Liu SC, Lam KS, Wang T, Giorgi F (1999). Is ozone pollution affecting crop yield in China? Geophysical Research Letters, 26,867-870.
[23]	Chameides WL, Kasibhatla P, Yienger J, Levy H II (1994). Growth of continental-scale metro-agro-plexes, regional ozone pollution and world good production. Science, 264,74-77. URL PMID
[24]	Chen GS (陈广生), Tian HQ (田汉勤) (2007). Land use/cover change effects on carbon cycling in terrestrial ecosystems. Journal of Plant Ecology (Chinese Version)(植物生态学报), 31,189-204. (in Chinese with English abstract)
[25]	Danielsson H, Gelang J, Pleijel H (1999). Ozone sensitivity, growth and flower development in Phleum genotypes of different geographic origin in the Nordic countries. Environmental and Experimental Botany, 42,41-49.
[26]	Davison AW, Barnes J (1998). Effects of ozone on wild plants. New Phytologist, 139,135-151.
[27]	Davison AW, Neufeld HS, Chappelka AH, Wolff K, Finkelstein PL (2003). Interpreting spatial variation in ozone symptoms shown by cut leaf cone flower, Rudbeckia laciniata L. Environmental Pollution, 125,61-71. URL PMID
[28]	Dennis RL, Byun DW, Novak JH, Galluppi KJ, Coats CJ, Vouk MA (1996). The next generation of integrated air quality models: EPA's Models-3. Atmospheric Environment, 30,1925-1938.
[29]	Derwent RG, Simmondes PG, Doherty SO, Ryall DB (1998). The impact of the Montreal Protocol on halocarbon concentrations in Northern Hemisphere baseline and European air masses at Mace Head, Ireland over a ten year period from 1987-1996. Atmospheric Environment, 32,3689-3702.
[30]	Emberson LD, Ashmore MR, Cambridge HM, Simpson D, Tuovinen JP (2000). Modeling stomatal ozone flux across Europe. Environ-mental Pollution, 109,403-413.
[31]	Erisman JW, van Pul A, Wyers P (1994). Parameterization of dry deposition mechanisms for the quantification of atmospheric input to ecosystems. Atmospheric Environment, 28,2595-2607.
[32]	Evans PA, Ashmore MR (1992). The effects of ambient air on a semi-natural grassland community. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, 38,91-97.
[33]	Farage PK, Long SP, Lechner EG, Baker NR (1991). The sequence of change within the photosynthetic apparatus of wheat following short-term exposure to ozone. Plant Physiology, 95,529-535. DOI URL PMID
[34]	Farquahar GD, von Caemmerer S, Berry JA (1980). A biochemical model of photosynthetic CO₂ assimilation in leaves of C₃ species. Planta, 149,78-90. URL PMID
[35]	Felzer B, Kicklighter D, Melillo J, Wang C, Zhuang Q, Prinn R (2004). Effects of ozone on net primary production and carbon sequestration in the conterminous United States using a biogeochemistry model. Tellus, 56,230-248.
[36]	Fowler D, Cape JN, Coyle M, Smith RI, Hellbrekke AG, Simpson D, Derwent RD, Johnson C (1999). Modelling photochemical oxidant formation, transport, deposition and exposure of terrestrial ecosystems. Environmental Pollution, 100,43-55.
[37]	Fowler D, Duyzer JH (1989). Micrometeorological techniques for the measurement of trace gas exchange. In: Andreae MO, Schimel DS eds. Exchange of Trace Gases Between Terrestrial Ecosystem and the Atmosphere. John Wiley and Sons, New York, 189-207.
[38]	Fredericksen TS, Kolb TE, Skelly JM, Steiner KC, Joyce BJ, Savage JE (1996). Light environment alters ozone uptake per net photosynthetic rate in black cherry ( Prunus serotina Ehrh.) trees. Tree Physiology, 16,485-490. URL PMID
[39]	Fuhrer J, Booker FL (2003). Ecological issues related to ozone: agricultural issues. Environment International, 29,141-154. URL PMID
[40]	Garland JA, Clough WS, Fowler D (1973). Deposition of sulphur dioxide on grass. Nature, 242,256-257.
[41]	Grantz DA (2003). Ozone impacts on cotton: towards an integrated mechanism. Environmental Pollution, 126,331-344. DOI URL PMID
[42]	Grantz DA, Yang S (2000). Ozone impacts on allometry and root hydraulic conductance are not mediated by source limitation or developmental age. Journal of Experimental Botany, 51,919-927. URL PMID
[43]	Grulke NE, Preisler HK, Fan CC, Retzlaff WA, Fan CC, Retzlaff W (2002). A statistical approach to estimate ozone uptake of ponderosa pine in a Mediterranean climate. Environmental Pollution, 119,163-175. DOI URL PMID
[44]	Guo JP (郭建平), Wang CY (王春乙), Wen M (温民) (2003). Study on the impacts of ozone concentration on vegetables. Chinese Journal of Eco-Agriculture (中国生态农业学报), 11(2),18-20. (in Chinese with English abstract)
[45]	Heagle AS (1989). Ozone and crop yield. Annual Review of Phytopathology, 27,397-423.
[46]	Heagle AS, Mille JS, Booker FL, Pursley WA (1999). Ozone stress, carbon dioxide enrichment, and nitrogen fertility interactions in cotton. Crop Science, 39,731-741.
[47]	Heck W, Taylor OC, Tingoy DT (1988). Assessment of Crop Loss from Air Pollutants. Elsevier Science, London.
[48]	Heck WW, Cure WW, Rawlings JO, Zaragoza LJ, Heagle AS (1984). Assessing impacts of ozone on agricultural crops. I. Overview. Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association, 34,729-735.
[49]	Heggestad HE, Lesser VM (1990). Effects of ozone, sulfur dioxide, soil water deficit, and cultivar on yields of soybean. Journal of Environmental Quality, 19,488-495.
[50]	Heggestad HE, Middleton JT (1959). Ozone in high concentrations as a cause of tobacco injury. Science, 129,208-210. DOI URL PMID
[51]	Higurashi A, Nakajima T (2002). Detection of aerosol over the East China Sea near Japan from four-channel satellite data. Geophysical Research Letters, 29,1836-1853.
[52]	IPCC (2001). Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Summary for Policy-Makers. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Geneva.
[53]	Islam KR, Mulchi CL, Ali AA (2000). Interactions of tropospheric CO₂ and O₃ enrichments and moisture variations on microbial biomass and respiration in soil. Global Change Biology, 9,255-265.
[54]	Jilliam WG, Clive GJ, Fodd ED (2003). Urbanization effects on tree growth in the vicinity of New York City. Nature, 424,183-187.
[55]	Jin MH (金明红), Huang ZY (黄益宗) (2003). Review of crops damaged and yield loss by ozone stress. Ecology and Environment (生态环境), 12,482-486. (in Chinese with English abstract)
[56]	Jones ME, Paine TD, Fenn ME, Poth MA (2004). Influence of ozone and nitrogen deposition on bark beetle activity under drought conditions. Forest Ecology and Management, 200,67-76.
[57]	Karlsson PE, Uddling J, Skarby L, Wallin G, Sellden G (2003). Impact of ozone on the growth of birth ( Betula pendula) seedlings. Environmental Pollution, 124,485-495.
[58]	Karnosky DF, Gagnon ZE, Reed DD, Witter JA (1992). Effects of genotype on the response of Populus tremuloides Michx. to ozone and nitrogen deposition. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 62,189-199.
[59]	Kato N, Akimoto H (1992). Anthropogenic emissions of SO₂ and NO_x in Asia: emission inventories. Atmospheric Environment, 26,2997-3017.
[60]	Kelly JM, Samuelson LJ, Edwards G, Hanson P, Kelting D, Mays A, Wullschleger S (1995). Are seedings reasonable surrogates for trees? An analysis of ozone impacts on Quercus rubra. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 85,1317-1324.
[61]	Kiehl JT, Schneider TL, Portmann RW, Solomon S (1999). Climate forcing due to tropospheric and stratospheric ozone. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104,31239-31254.
[62]	Kim JS, Chappelka AH, Miller-Goodman MS (1998). Decomposition of blackberry and broomsedge bluestem as influence by ozone. Journal of Environmental Quality, 27,953-960.
[63]	King DA (1987). A modle for predicting the influence of moisture stress on crop losses caused by ozone. Ecological Modelling, 35,39-44.
[64]	Klimont Z, Cofala J, Schopp W, Amann M, Streets DG, Ichikawa Y, Fujita S (2001). Projections of SO₂, NO_x, NH₃ and VOC emissions in East Asia up to2030. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 130,193-198.
[65]	Kolb TE, Matyssek R (2001). Limitations and perspectives about scaling ozone impacts in trees. Environmental Pollution, 115,373-393. URL PMID
[66]	Kuik OJ, Helming JFM, Dorland C, Spaninks FA (2000). The economic benefits to agriculture of a reduction of low-level ozone pollution in the Netherlands. European Review of Agricultural Economics, 27,76-90.
[67]	Kull O, Sober A, Coleman MD, Dickson RE, Isebands JG, Gagnon Z, Karnosky DF (1996). Photosynthetic responses of aspen clones to simultaneous exposures of ozone and CO₂ Canadian. Journal of Forestry Research, 26,639-648.
[68]	Legge AH, Grunhage L, Nosal M, Jager HJ, Krupa SV (1995). Ambient ozone and adverse crop response: an evaluation of North American and European data as they related to exposure indices and critical levels. Journal of Applied Botany, 69,192-205.
[69]	Liu JD (刘建栋), Zhou XJ (周秀骥), Yu Q (于强), Yan P (颜鹏), Guo JP (郭建平), Ding GA (丁国安) (2004). A numerical simulation of the impacts of ozone in the ground layer atmosphere on crop photosynthesis. Chinese Journal of Atmospheric Sciences (大气科学), 28,59-67. (in Chinese with English abstract)
[70]	Long SP, Ainsworth EA, Leakey ADB, Nosberger J, Ort DR (2006). Food for thought: lower-than-expected crop yield stimulation with rising CO₂ concentrations. Science, 312,1918-1921. URL PMID
[71]	Loranger GI, Pregitzer KS, King JS (2004). Elevated CO₂ and $O-{3}-{t}$ concentrations differentially affect selected groups of the fauna in temperate forest soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 36, 1521-1524.
[72]	Lü AF (吕爱锋), Tian HQ (田汉勤) (2007). Interaction among climatic change, fire disturbance and ecosystem productivity. Journal of Plant Ecology (Chinese Version)(植物生态学报), 31,242-251. (in Chinese with English abstract)
[73]	Lü CQ (吕超群), Tian HQ (田汉勤), Huang Y (黄耀) (2007). Ecological effects of increased nitrogen deposition in terrestrial ecosystems. Journal of Plant Ecology (Chinese Version)(植物生态学报), 31,205-218. (in Chinese with English abstract)
[74]	Manninen S, Siivonen N, Timonen U, Huttunen S (2003). Differences in ozone response between two Finnish wild straw-berry populations. Environmental and Experimental Botany, 49,29-39.
[75]	Martin MJ, Farage PK (2000). Can the stomatal changes caused by acute ozone exposure be predicted by changes occurring in the mesophyll? A simplification for models of vegetation response to the global increase in tropospheric elevate ozone episodes. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology, 27,211-219.
[76]	Martin MJ, Host GE, Lenz KE (2001). Stimulating the growth response of aspen to elevated ozone: a mechanistic approach to scaling a leaf-level model of ozone effects on photosynthesis to a complex canopy architecture. Environmental Pollution, 115,425-436.
[77]	Maurer S, Matyssek R (1997). Nutrition and the ozone sensitivity of birch (Betula pendula). II. Carbon balance, water-use efficiency and nutritional status of the whole plant. Trees, 12,11-20.
[78]	Mauzerall DL, Narita D, Akimoto H, Horowitz L, Waters S (2000). Seasonal characteristics of tropospheric ozone production and mixing ratios of East Asia: a global three-dimensional chemical transport model analysis. Journal of Geophysical Research, 105,17895-17910.
[79]	Mauzerall DL, Wang X (2001). Protecting agricultural crops from the effects of tropospheric ozone exposure: science and standard setting in the United States, Europe, and Asia. Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, 26,237-268.
[80]	McDonald EP, Kruger EL, Riemenschneider DE, Isebrands JG (2002). Competitive status influences tree-growth responses to elevated CO₂ and O₃ in aggrading aspen stands. Functional Ecology, 16,792-801.
[81]	McKee IF, Farage PK, Long SP (1995). The interactive effects of elevated CO₂ and O₃ concentration on photosynthesis in spring wheat. Photosynthesis Research, 45,111-119. DOI URL PMID
[82]	McKee IF, Long SP (2001). Plant growth regulators control ozone damage to wheat yield. New Phytologist, 152,41-51.
[83]	McLaughlin S, Percy K (1999). Forest health in North America: some perspectives on actual and potential roles of climate and air pollution. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 116,151-197.
[84]	Melillo JM, McGuire D, Kicklighter DW, Moore B III, Vorosmarty CJ, Schloss AL (1993). Global climate change and terrestrial net primary production. Nature, 363,234-240.
[85]	Mills G, Hayes F, Buse A, Reynolds B (2000). Air Pollution and Vegetation. Annual Report 1999/2000 of UN/ECE ICP Vegetation. Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Bangor.
[86]	Montes PB, Blum U, Heagle AS (1982). The effects of ozone and nitrogen fertilizer on tall fescue, ladino clover and a fescue-cover mixture. I. Growth, regrowth and forage production. Canadian Journal of Botany, 60,2745-2752.
[87]	Morgan PB, Ainsworth EA, Long SP (2003). How does elevated ozone impact soybean? A meta-analysis of photosynthesis, growth and yield. Plant, Cell and Environment, 28,1317-1328.
[88]	Mulchi C, Rudorff B, Lee E, Rowland R, Pausch R (1995). Morphological responses among crop species to full-season exposures to enhanced concentrations of atmospheric CO₂ and O₃. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 85,1379-1386.
[89]	Muntifering RB, Chappelka AH, Lin JC, Karnosky DF, Somers GL (2006). Chemical composition and digestibility of Trifolium exposed to elevated ozone and carbon dioxide in a free-air (FACE) fumigation system. Functional Ecology, 20,269-275.
[90]	Murphy JJ, Delucchi MA, McCubbin DR, Kim HJ (1999). The cost of crop damage caused by ozone air pollution from motor vehicles. Journal of Environmental Management, 55,273-289.
[91]	Nakajima T, Higurashi A, Kawamoto K, Penner JE (2001). Possible correlation between satellite-derived cloud and aerosol microphysical parameters. Geophysical Research Letters, 28,1171-1174.
[92]	Nouchi I, Ito O, Harazono Y, Kouchi H (1995). Accelerating of ¹³C-labelled photosynthate partitioning from leaves to panicles in rice plants exposed to chronic ozone at the reproductive stage. Environmental Pollution, 88,253-260. DOI URL PMID
[93]	Oksanen E (2003). Physiological responses of birch ( Betula pendula) to ozone: a comparison between open-soil-growth trees exposed for six growing season. Tree Physiology, 23,603-614. DOI URL PMID
[94]	Oksanen E, Rousi M (2001). Differences of Betula origins in ozone sensitivity based on open-field experiment over two growing seasons. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 31,804-811.
[95]	Ollinger SV, Aber JD, Reich PB (1997). Simulating ozone effects on forest productivity: interactions among leaf-canopy and stand-level processes. Ecological Applications, 7,1237-1251.
[96]	Olszyk DM, Johnson MG, Phillips DL, Seidler RJ, Tingey DT, Watrud LS (2001). Interactive effects of CO₂ and O₃ on a ponderosa pine plant/litter/soil mesocosm. Environmental Pollution, 115,447-462. DOI URL PMID
[97]	Pell EJ, Schlagnhaufer CD, Arteca RN (1997). Ozone-induced oxidative stress: mechanisms of action and reaction. Physiologia Plantarum, 100,264-273.
[98]	Piikki K, Sellden G, Pleijel H (2004). The impact of tropospheric ozone on leaf number duration and tuber yield of the potato ( Solanum tuberosum L.) cultivars Bintje and Kardal. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, 104,483-492.
[99]	Pleijel H, Danilsson H, Gelang J, Sild E, Sellden G (1998). Growth stage dependence of the grain yield response to ozone in spring wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.). Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 70,61-68.
[100]	Power SA, Ashmore MR (2002). Responses of fen and fen-meadow communities to ozone. New Phytologist, 156,399-408.
[101]	Reich PB (1987). Quantifying plant response to ozone: a unifying theory. Tree Physiology, 3,63-91. DOI URL PMID
[102]	Reichle HGJ, Cormsen VS, Saylor MS, Hypes WD, Wallio HA, Casas JC, Gormsen BB, Saylor MS, Hesketh WD (1986). Middle and upper tropospheric carbon monoxide mixing ratios as measures by a satellite-bome remote sensor during November 1981. Journal of Geophysical Research, 91,10865-10887.
[103]	Reiling PB, Davison AW (1992). The response of native, herbaceous species to ozone: growth and fluorescence screening. New Phytologist, 120,29-37.
[104]	Rudorff BFT, Mulchi CL, Lee FH, Rowland R, Pausch R (1996). Effects of enhanced O₃ and CO₂ enrichment on plant characteristics in wheat and corn. Environmental Pollution, 94,53-60.
[105]	Saleem A, Loponen J, Pihlaja K, Oksanen E (2001). Effects of long-term open-field ozone exposure on leaf phenolics of European silver birth ( Betula pendula Roth). Journal of Chemical Ecology, 27,1049-1062. DOI URL PMID
[106]	Samuelson L, Kelly JM (2001). Scaling ozone effects from seedings to mature trees. New Phytologist, 149,21-41.
[107]	Shaver GR, Canadell J, Chapin FS III, Gurevitch J, Harte J, Henry G, Ineson P, Jonasson S, Melillo J, Pitelka L, Rustad L (2000). Global warming and terrestrial ecosystems: a conceptual framework for analysis. BioScience, 50,871-882.
[108]	Stevenson DS, Johnson CE, Collins WJ, Derwent RG, Shine KP, Edwards JM (1998). Evolution of tropospheric ozone radiative forcing. Geophysical Research Letters, 25,3819-3822.
[109]	Stohl A, Trickl T (1999). A textbook example of long-range transport: simultaneous observation of ozone maxima of stratospheric and North American origin in the free troposphere over Europe. Journal of Geophysical Research, 104,30445-30462.
[110]	Streets DG, Carmichael GR, Amann M, Arndt RL (2001). Energy consumption and acid deposition in Northeast Asia. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 130,187.
[111]	Tian HQ (田汉勤) (2002). Dynamics of the terrestrial biosphere in changing global environments: date, models, and validation. Acta Geographica Sinica (地理学报), 57,379-388. (in Chinese with English Abstract).
[112]	Tian HQ, Liu JY, Mellio JM, Liu ML, Kicklighter DW, Yan XD, Pan SF (2005). The terrestrial carbon budget in East Asia:human and natural impacts. In: Fu CB, Freney J, Steward J eds. Changes in the Human-Monsoon System of East Asia in the Context of Global Change. SCOPE Series, Island Press, Whashington , DC.
[113]	Tian HQ, Melillo JM, Kicklighter DW, McGuire AD, Helfrich J (1999). The sensitivity of terrestrial carbon storage to historical atmospheric CO₂ and climate variability in the United States. Tellus, 51B,414-452.
[114]	Tian HQ, Melillo JM, Kicklighter DW, Pan SF, Liu JY, McGuire AD, Moore B III (2003). Regional carbon dynamics in monsoon Asia and its implications for the global carbon cycle. Global and Planetary Change, 37,201-217.
[115]	Tingey DT, Rodecap KD, Lee EH, Hogsett WE, Gregg JW (2002). Pod development increases the ozone sensivity of Phaseolus vulgaris. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 139,325-341.
[116]	Tjoekler MG, Volin JC, Oleksyn J, Reich PB (1995). Interaction of ozone pollution and light effects on photosynthesis in a forest canopy experiment. Plant, Cell and Environment, 18,895-905.
[117]	Tonneijck AEG, Franzaring JC, Brouwer G, Metselaar K, Dueck TA (2004). Does interspecific competition alter effects of early season ozone exposure on plants from wet grasslands? Results of a three-year experiment in open-top chamber. Environmental Pollution, 131,205-213. DOI URL PMID
[118]	Torsethaugen G, Pell EJ, Assmann SM (1999). Ozone inhibits guard cell K ⁺ channels implicated in stomatal opening. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of American, 96,13577-13582.
[119]	Uddling J, Günthardt-Goerg MS, Matyssek R, Oksanen E, Pleijel H, Selldén G, Karlsson PE (2004). Biomass reduction of juvenile birch is more strongly related to stomatal uptake of ozone than to indices based on external exposure. Atmospheric Environment, 38,4709-4719.
[120]	U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1996). Air Quality Criteria for Ozone and Related Photochemical Oxidants. EPA, Washington, DC.
[121]	U.S. Environmental Projection Agency (1999). National Air Pollu-tant Emission Trends, 1900-1998 (Report EPA-454/R-00-002). EPA, Research Triangle Park, NC.
[122]	van Oijen M, Dreccer MF, Firsching KH, Schnieders BJ (2004). Simple equations for dynamic models of the effects of CO₂ and O₃ on light-use efficiency and growth of crops. Ecological Modelling, 179,39-60.
[123]	Virginia M, Lesser V, Rawlings JO (1990). Ozone effects on agricultural crops: statistical methodologies and estimated does-response relationships. Crop Science, 30,148-155.
[124]	Volin JC, Reich PB, Givnish TJ (1998). Elevated carbon dioxide ameliorates the effects of ozone on photosynthesis and pathway or plant functional group. New Phytologist, 138,315-325.
[125]	Wager DJ, Baker FA (2003). Effects of ozone, climate, and spruce budworm on Douglas-fir growth in the Wasatch Mountains. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 33,910-921.
[126]	Wang CY (王春乙) (1995). A study of the effect of ozone on crop. Journal of Applied Meteorological Science (应用气象学报), 6,343-348. (in Chinese with English abstract)
[127]	Wei C, Skelly JM, Pennypacker SP, Ferdinand JA, Savage JE, Stevenson RE, Davis DD (2004). Influence of light fleck and low light on foliar injury and physiological responses of two hybrid popular clones to ozone. Environmental Pollution, 130,215-227. DOI URL PMID
[128]	Wild O, Akimoto H (2001). Intercontinental transport of ozone and its precursors in a 3-D global CTM. Journal of Geophysical Research, 106,27729-27744.
[129]	Woodbury PB, Laurence JA, Hudler GW (1994). Chronic ozone exposure alters the growth of leaves, stems and roots of hibrid Populus. Environmental Population, 85,103-108.
[130]	Wustman BA, Oksanen E, Karnosky DK, Sober J, Isebrands JG, Hendrey GR, Pregitzer KS, Podila GK (2001). Effects of elevated CO₂ and O₃ on aspen clones varying in O₃ sensitivity: can CO₂ ameliorate the harmful effects of O₃? Environmental Pollution, 115,473-481. DOI URL PMID

	单位 Units	计算时间 Calculation period
1 平均浓度 Mean concentration	μg·m^-3 or ppbv	季节平均或年平均 Seasonal or annual
2 峰值浓度 Peak concentration	μg·m^-3 or ppbv	季节平均或年平均 Seasonal or annual
3 累积潜在危害浓度 Accumulated exposure to potentially damaging concentration	AOT₄₀ (ppbh>40 pph) SUM06,SUM 40	作物4~6月平均 Cereals from Apr.to Jun.	树木4~9月平均 Tree from Apr. to Sept.
4 总酸输入量 Total acidifying input (∑SO_x+NO_y+NH_x)	k eq h^-2·hm^-2	年平均 Annual
5 污染物沉降通量 Deposited flux of pollutant	kg·hm^-2 per year nitrogen, eutrophication	全年 Year

	单位 Units	计算时间 Calculation period
1 平均浓度 Mean concentration	μg·m^-3 or ppbv	季节平均或年平均 Seasonal or annual
2 峰值浓度 Peak concentration	μg·m^-3 or ppbv	季节平均或年平均 Seasonal or annual
3 累积潜在危害浓度 Accumulated exposure to potentially damaging concentration	AOT₄₀ (ppbh>40 pph) SUM06,SUM 40	作物4~6月平均 Cereals from Apr.to Jun.	树木4~9月平均 Tree from Apr. to Sept.
4 总酸输入量 Total acidifying input (∑SO_x+NO_y+NH_x)	k eq h^-2·hm^-2	年平均 Annual
5 污染物沉降通量 Deposited flux of pollutant	kg·hm^-2 per year nitrogen, eutrophication	全年 Year